
fe't-Uooh to ^ttompanj % 


UNIVERSAL ATLAS 


BY 

THEODORE S. FAY. 


Worship him that made heaven, and earth, and the sea, and the fountains 
of waters.”—Rev. xiv. 7. 


NEW YORK: 

G. P. PUTNAM <fc SON, .661 BROADWAY. 
1807. 


FLS 

2015 

059515 


KEAT OUTLINE 


(iEOG-RAPHt 


FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 


























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GREAT OUTLINE 


l4 




GE 

FOR 


OGRAPHT 

HIGH SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 


£cft-|)ou!i to ,A.rramp;mn the 

UNIVERSAL ATLAS. 


BY 

THEODOBE S. FAY. 



'•"Worship him that made heaven, and earth, and the sea, and the fountains 
of waters.”—Key. xiv. 7. 



NEW YOBK: 

Gk P. PUTNAM & SON, 661 BROADWAY. 




Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S67, by 
G. P. PUTNAM & SON, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of New York. 


LC Control Number 



tmp96 033759 


The New York Printing Company, 
8i, 83 , and 85 Centre St., 

NEW YORK. 











PREFACE. 


w E have numerous excellent School Geographies. 
Why another? A few lessons, given or received, 
with the present work, will be a sufficient answer. 
It is because a large and simple enough circle of 
geographical knowledge is not generally taught. 
What countries does the traveler pass through, from 
Hammerfest to Hobarton—from London to the most 
populous city of the globe, Han-kow; or from the 
Baltic to the Adriatic ? Why is the arctic circle, or 
tropic of Cancer, drawn just where it is? Explain 
the phenomena of the seasons; the condition of day 
and night, climate, etc., at the different points 
of the globe’s surface. Why has one point of 
the earth, six months uninterrupted day or night, 
and another, never more than 12 hours? Why 
is the winter colder, and the summer hotter, in 
the S. Hem., than in the northern ? Ask these, 
and similar questions, of young students, who 
have completed tbeir geographical course; and 




IV 


PREFACE. 


we shall often perceive that there is room for 
another geographical School-Book — that there is 
need of another, wider reaching, and which does 
its work more thoroughly. Consider, moreover, that 
the science of Geography itself has recently made 
striking advances—from geographical discoveries— 
from the concentration of knowledge in geographical 
societies—from the perfection to which map-drawing 
has been brought; and, also, that new political 
events, in many parts of the globe, have changed 
territorial limits. 

Our country has just passed through a great crisis. 
It is, at last, seated upon the foundations of Law, 
Liberty, and Christianity. It has taken a higher 
place among the nations, and is beginning to exer¬ 
cise weightier influence in the councils of mankind. 
The uttermost corners of the earth are being ex¬ 
plored. Remote, until now unknown, civilizations 
are being opened ; and steam and electricity are 
bringing them more within our observation, and in 
nearer relations with us. The entire Eastern Con¬ 
tinent is threatened with immense changes. It is 
necessary that the American people should follow 
them with intelligent attention; and the rising gen¬ 
eration, particularly, require a clearer knowledge, 
not only of their own, but other countries. They 
must know the divisions of the whole earth, as 
they know the States of the Union or the rooms of 
their houses. Yet more. They must become 
better acquainted with the planet they inhabit, and 
with its immense and various populations—fellow- 
tenants of their wonderful abode. To give this 


PREFACE. 


V 


instruction completely, in a little volume, like the 
present, is impossible. A part, only, can be first 
given. What part? That is the question. We have 
attempted to discover and separate this part. We 
present a School Geography, upon an entirely new 
principle—a Great Outline, intended equally for the 
use of persons who have never studied Geography 
(these will find it a foundation), and for persons 
who have completed their studies (these will find 
it a resume). It includes the main points — the 
essential points of the science—that part which all 
persons will find it most advantageous, as well as 
most easy, to fix in their minds, and to carry with 
them through life. If you do not know this Outline, 
you can have no real knowledge of Geography. If 
you know it — all other geographical knowledge, 
which your circumstances may require, will come 
to you far more easily, indeed almost naturally. 

How to frame this Outline? What to select and 
reject? How to introduce it when framed, into the 
mind ? How to engrave it there permanently ? How 
to give it a power of self-development, so that it 
will remain in the mind—not a mass of dead facts 
unconnected with each other—but a living seed, to 
bring forth fruit in its season ? This is the task 
undertaken by the writer. The friends of education, 
the teacher, the student, are respectfully invited to 
examine, whether or not it is accomplished. It 
has been said: there is “ no royal road to Mathe¬ 
matics.” The author cannot wholly repress the hope 
that he has cut a shorter and pleasanter pathway to 
Geography. 


VI 


PREFACE. 


Among the advantages of this method the follow¬ 
ing may be stated: 

1 . The teacher reads all lessons from the book. 
The pupil follows every word upon the plates. He 
thus studies, at the same time, with his ear and eye.. 
The effect will soon become apparent. 

2. No formal demand is made on his memory; 
yet he cannot help learning by heart, understand¬ 
ing, and retaining what he has learned; because 
the book itself teaches him how it must be 
studied. 

3. By an arrangement equally simple and useful, 
the confusion of crowded names on the maps is 
avoided. 

4. The text is constructed so that the more ad¬ 
vanced pupils may easily become competent teachers 
of other classes. 

5. The work will be equally useful to mothers, 
governesses, elder sisters, and brothers, who, even 
when not prepared by previous study, will find no 
difficulty, by its aid, in taking the younger members 
of the family through the whole course. 

6 . No study at home is necessary. The recitation 
is study enough. Thus the trouble of carrying books 
backward and forward is avoided. 

7. The text is broken apart into 500 or 600 sec¬ 
tions, each one carefully arranged after, or rather 
above the other, so that the ascent is as easy as the 
steps of a flight of stairs. 

8 . If any thing is left out which other School-Geo¬ 
graphies give, it is done intentionally, to supply 
the place with more important matter, which others 


PREFACE. 


vii 

omit. Sucli remarks, therefore, as “ this river” 11 that 
town” etc., are not given , will, we think, be withdrawn, 
upon a better understanding of the plan. A man, 
passing around the globe, does not carry every thing 
in his knapsack. 

A correct opinion of the work cannot be formed 
by turning over the leaves. It is not a book of 
reference or reading. It is a teaching —a studying 
book. The text without the plates, or the plates 
without the text, might be deemed imperfect and 
unintelligible. They are parts of a machine; and 
must be used together, like the blades of a pair of 
scissors. 

While Parts I. II. and III. give a uniform bird’s- 
eye view of the entire globe’s surface—not by dis¬ 
jointed maps, on different scales, but by planispheres, 
presenting whole views of the earth—Parts IV. 
and V. present outline views of Europe and the 
United States of America, on a larger scale, apply¬ 
ing to them the same principles which have been 
previously applied to the entire globe. The writer 
has not attempted to teach the whole science. Some 
may object that he has not taught enough. The 
answer is: learn this first; then it will he time to ash 
for more. Such as are prepared for more, are refer¬ 
red to Text-book, sections 6 and 98. 

Lastly, tfie work is not intended to reflect upon, far 
less to displace, any other good School-Geography. 
We have several which execute, with conscientious¬ 
ness and success, the task they have undertaken. 
But that task differs from ours in this. We have 
blended, into their natural union, astronomical and 


vil] 


FREFACE. 


physical Geography. We have boldly rejected all 
the usual mass of details, irreconcilable with the 
simplicity and symmetry of a great, uniform out¬ 
line — an outline comprehending the entire Earth, 
and which cannot be properly got into the mind 
unless it be taken, apart from those details. It is 
hoped, therefore, that the “Great Outline” will be 
regarded by other School Geographies in the field— 
not as an enemy, but as a re-enforcement. 


TEXT-BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 


INTRODUCTION. 


(1*) Geography is a description of the surface of 
the earth as the residence of man. It is generally 
divided into Ancient and Modern Geography; the first 
embraces the period of man’s residence on the earth, 
from the beginning of human history till the fall of 
the Roman Empire; the latter extends from the fall of 
the Roman Empire to our day. Geography is subdi¬ 
vided into four departments — Astronomical or Mathe¬ 
matical, Physical, Political, and Historical. 


(2.) Astronomical Geography describes the 
earth as one of the heavenly bodies — its form, magnitude 
and place in our solar system — its motions and 
relations to other celestial bodies, particularly to the 
nun — the way in which it holds itself as it moves 
around that central orb, etc. It explains seasons— 
climates — lines drawn on maps and artificial globes, 
such as arctic and antarctic circles, tropics of Capricorn 
and Cancer, equator, ecliptic, etc. By it we ascertain 
the true position of places on the earth’s surface. 


(3.) Physical Geography — sometimes termed 
Natural Geography —describes the most striking natural 
features of the earth’s surface — the configuration of 
the land — the phenomena of the ocean—currents — 

1 



2 


INTRODUCTION. 


winds, etc.—the soil—modifications of climates and 
their physical causes. It also gives a general idea of 
great land and water divisions—continents—oceans— 
lakes—islands—peninsulas — capes —mountain - chains— 
mountain-peaks—rivers—plains—valleys, etc. 

(4.) Ordinary, Political or Descriptive Ge¬ 
ography describes the divisions of the earth’s surface 
into countries — empires — republics — kingdoms — states 

— towns, etc.; and gives' some account of their inhabitants 

— governments — religions — languages — civilisation — 
natural productions — manufactures — commerce, etc. 

(5.) Historical Geography treats of the origin 
of countries — of what, for the sake of convenience, 
we call the different races and families of man — the 
great events, changes and revolutions through which 
they have passed — the enterprises and expeditions, 
by which man has gradually explored remote continents, 
islands and oceans; thus obtaining an exact knowledge 
of the real shape and dimensions of our planet and a 
tolerable acquaintance with nearly every part of its. 
surface. 

(6.) Purpose of this work. — It is obvious that 
no' mere school-book can give a complete knowledge of 
these vast subjects. All that we can conscientiously 
promise to teach the young student, is an outline, 
to be more or less filled up, according to the 
opportunities and requirements of future life. We 
have endeavored, with great expense, labor and care, 
aided by the best authorities and most distinguished 
collaborators, to give, within the smallest possible com¬ 
pass, and, consequently, by the premeditated sacrifice 
of many details, such a perfectly selected and arranged 
outline of geographical knowledge as is most necessary, 
not only for the student of every school, but for all 
persons in every class of life. And, as it is much 
more desirable to learn an elementary, definite part 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


of a science thoroughly, than to obtain a larger amount 
of general knowledge superficially, we have limited 
our treatment of Astronomical, Physical and Political 
Geography to a resume, constructed so as to — (we 
venture here to use this word) force itself into every 
mind; and to form a solid and permanent foundation. 
Whatever may be reasonably desired to complete the 
circle of Ordinary, Political or Descriptive Geography, 
will be subsequently supplied by a second Text-book, 
nearly ready for publication, containing articles on 
countries, prominent rivers, mountains, etc. The second 
Text-book is not necessarily to be taken as a part 
of this work. The student, after having mastered the 
latter, will be thoroughly prepared, unaided by any 
teacher, to pursue the study of Geography merely by 
reading, with attention, any good Treatises within 
his reach. The purpose of the second Text-book, is 
to furnish such a Treatise, framed to suit the knowl¬ 
edge thus acquired, corresponding with the Atlas in 
his possession, and presenting a clearer panoramic view 
of the nations now occupying the globe — their degree 
of Christian civilization — the very striking peculiarities 
of their present position and condition, etc. — than he 
can obtain from any other volume of the same 
compass. 


i 



PART I. 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(7.) Starry heavens. — On a cloudless evening, 
the heavens appear scattered with stars set like gems 
in the interior of a vast concave. Our eye is not 
conscious of their unequal distances. Some seem 
larger than others and sparkle with far more 
brilliancy. 


( 8 .) Number of stars. — A person in the lati¬ 
tude of the United States can count, with the naked 
eye, 2 or 3,000. On the equator, where, in 24 hours, 
the spectator can get a view of the whole heavens 
without changing his place, he could distinguish about 
5,000. The telescope discloses hundreds and thousands 
of millions — in fact, a number without limit. 


(9.) Fixed Stars. — With the exception of the 
planets, of which 6 are visible, all the stars are called 
Fixed, Stars. They are blazing suns, many far ex¬ 
ceeding our sun in magnitude and brilliancy, but so 
immeasurably — so unimaginably distant that the tele¬ 
scope discovers no disks — no dimensions at all — 
only inappreciable points of intense light. 

(10.) Constellations. — Now examine PI. VIII. A. 
You there see two groups of fixed stars — that is 
two constellations — very conspicuous in our winter 
night-sky, namely, Orion (O-ri'-on) and Taurus (the 



ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


5 


Bull). Such groups, from time immemorial, have been 
named after persons, animals or other objects and are 
drawn on maps as in the diagram. You perceive 
these groups bear little resemblance to the figures after 
which they are called. Century after century they 
appear in the same position with regard to each other. 
The three stars of Orion’s belt thus always remain in 
a straight line with Sirius. The cluster, Hyades (hy'~ 
a-dez), for thousands of years, has thus represented 
the letter V. with the red star Aldebaran (al-de-ba'-ran) 
at one of its extremities; although this letter V., as is 
the case with other groups and constellations, seems 
to be continually moving through the heavens (around 
the earth) and consequently always . changes its posi¬ 
tion relative to the person looking at it. You will 
see the same constellations in the picture of the heavens 
(PI. I. A.). Point out there Pleiades .(ple'-ya-dez), Alde¬ 
baran (in the Bull’s eye), the two stars in the tip ol 
the Bull’s horn, Orion’s belt, Sirius. You would do 
well, on the first clear winter night, to seek out and 
recognize these constellations and stars in the natural 
heavens, of which they form the most brilliant orna¬ 
ments. We shall presently explain why PI. I. A. is 
entitled: “Imaginary view from Neptune.” 

(11.) Milky Way. — As the night grows darker, 
we become more aware of a wonderful, luminous belt 
or ring, irregular in outline, breadth and density, 
extending across the entire heavens, like a zone of 
indistinct clouds or a river rolling in soft waves of 
light. During many ages the world w r as unable to 
account for this. The telescope shows it to consist of 
masses upon masses of stars. (PI. I. A.) 

(12.) Planets. — A slight study of the heavens 
enables the eye to detect, among the other stars, 
several, distinguished by the peculiarity that they do 
not generally sparkle like the fixed stars, but shine with 
a soft steady light, like that reflected from the moon. 
These are called planets (wanderers), because, while 


6 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


the fixed stars remain thousands of years in the same 
position relative to each other, the planets, on the 
contrary, move or wander about, among the fixed stars, 
backward and forward — so that, in a few nights, we 
can observe that they have greatly changed their posi¬ 
tion with regard to the fixed stars, and to each other. 
When we say, however, that they wander among 
the fixed stars, we do not mean that they are as far 
off as the fixed stars. They are very, very much 
nearer. They belong to our solar system — heavenly 
bodies wheeling, at different distances, in the same di¬ 
rection, and nearly in the same plane, around the sun. 
While wheeling around the sun they, at the same time, 
and in the same direction, revolve on their axes. These 
planets do not, like the fixed stars, shine with their 
own light, but are dark, opaque bodies like our earth. 
They appear bright, only because they reflect back the 
light received from the sun, as a wall, or a house, or 
a distant mountain would. Our earth would appear 
just as much like a star and just as bright, if we 
could stand on one of them and look at it. Among 
the fixed stars (PI. I. A.) you will easily distinguish 
two planets. 

(13.) Solar System — eight principal planets 
revolving around the sun: (PI. VIII. B.) Mercury, 
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus (U'-ra-nus) 
and Neptune; (with asteroids, moons, comets and 
meteors.) 

(14.) Remark. The discovery of a new planet, 
Vulcan, has been announced, about half way between 
the orbit of Mercury and the sun. 

(15.) Asteroids. — Between Mars and Jupiter is a 
space in which a number of very little worlds, some 
of them not larger than Long Island or Cuba, revolve 
around the sun. They are called Asteroids. Eighty-six 
had been discovered in 1867. 


ASTRONOMIC AL GEOGRAPHY. 7 

(16.) Planet Neptune — is the most remote from 
us and from the sun, nearly 3,000 million miles. No 
human being can conceive this distance. Were it 
possible to construct a railroad to Neptune, and the 
train travelled at the rate of 40 miles an hour, day 
and night, without stopping a single moment, it would 
reach him in about 8,000 years; a cannon ball in 
456 years; a rapid pedestrian, without stopping to eat 
or sleep, in about 80,000 years. To walk along the 
entire path (PI. VIII. B.) which Neptune describes 
around the sun, would require 480,000 years. A 
ray of light comes from Neptune to the earth in 
5 */* hours. 

(17.) Light-Years. — The distance of Neptune is 
very wonderful compared with any we can measure on 
our earth, but the fixed stars are so prodigiously 
remote that, in proportion, the space between us and 
Neptune diminishes to almost nothing. It would be 
useless to speak of pedestrians, railroads or even 
flying cannon-balls, with reference to fixed stars. 
Astronomers have sought a different standard, namely 
light. Light passes 200.000 miles in a second. It 
could go 8 times around our earth while you count 
one. It comes from the sun (PI. VIII. B.) to the 
earth in 8 minutes 18 seconds. It traverses the whole 
breadth of the solar system (B.) in 11 hours. 
Who then can imagine the distance it travels in 
a year? Between 6 and 7,000,000,000,000 (seven 
billion) miles. This distance is called a light-year. 
A billion is a million times a million. It would 
take 30,000 years, night and day without stopping, 
to count one billion. Yet the nearest fixed star, alpha 
Centauri, (PI. VIII. C.) is so remote, 20 billion 
miles, that it takes a ray of light 3J/ 2 years to 
traverse it. Thus that distance is called 8% light- 
years. It would take, therefore, more than 600,000 
years to count the distance in miles of the very 
nearest fixed star. Now what is a light-year? 


8 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


The distance which a ray of light traverses in one year. 
And what is that distance? Between 6 and 7 billion 
miles. And what is a billion? A million million. 

( 18.) Remark. 1. The teacher will, according 
to his discretion, put similar questions where they are 
not found in the text. 

2. Among the French, a billion is a thousand 
million. 

(19.) Distance of other Fixed Stars. — PI.VIII. 

C. will help you to conceive the amazing distance of 
even the nearest fixed star. Our entire solar system, 
whose dimensions are described in sec. 16. is, in 
PI. VIII. C., only about as large as the head of a pin. 
This is the reason why the fixed stars would appear 
materially in the same form and groups, and at about 
the same distance, whether seen from Neptune or from 
our earth. It would make almost as little difference 
which one of the planets we view the Fixed-Star World 
from — as which house of a city, or which story of 
a house. What is the reason? Because the distance is 
so great that, in comparison, the whole size of the solar 
system would scarcely be greater than the head of a pin. 
PI. VIII. C. gives the distance of the principal stars 
which have been measured. The star called alpha 
Centauri — 3y 2 light-years; that numbered 61 in Cygnus 
— 9%; Vega— 13y 2 ; Arcturus—26^Sirius—22; iota, 
in Great Bear — 25; Polar Star—31; Capella—72. 
These stars are the very nearest to our solar system. The 
others are too distant for measurement; the Milky Way, 
thousands of light-years; other starry systems, called 
nebulae, nearly invisible except through a telescope — 
probably millions of light-years distant. In PI. VIII. C. 
the solar system is given as a point. The fixed stars, alpha 
Centauri, etc., are at different distances from it. The 
dotted lines do not give the relative distances, as the 
figures do. Supposing the solar system to be a point, 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 9v 

the distance of that nearest fixed star, alpha Centauri, 
could be given only by a line 2,500 times longer than 
the diameter of the earth. The circumference, therefore, 
of the diagram would require to have a diameter 
5,000 times greater than that of the earth, or about 
40 million miles; and even then the sheet would be 
only large enough to take in alpha Centauri. What 
then must be the dimensions of a sheet large enough 
to take in the North Star and Capella, to say nothing 
of others. 

(20.) Imaginary view of the heavens from 
Neptune — Our earth a star. — We cannot see 
Neptune from our earth with the naked eye; scarcely 
with a telescope. Indeed his existence was unknown 
till 1846. He is far larger than the earth, his diame¬ 
ter being more than 4 times greater. Suppose we 
had a Car propelled by light in which we could visit 
the heavenly bodies. Imagine yourself (PI. I. A.) thus 
arrived upon that dark, cold and remote planet. The 
starry heavens are drawn as they appear from our 
earth on a winter night. You easily recognize Orion 
and his belt; Taurus, with the two clusters, Hyades 
and Pleiades; and two stars in the tip of the Bull’a 
horn; the brilliant star Aldebaran; Sirius, etc. The 
sun, although from our earth too dazzling to be 
looked at, seen from Neptune, would dwindle to a 
mere point scarcely distinguishable from Sirius, Alde¬ 
baran, etc. From Neptune he would appear 1,300 times 
weaker than from our earth. The brightest noon-day 
of summer in that planet must probably be as dark as 
one of the earth’s darkest nights. The stars would be 
clearly visible. Although from Neptune we should see 
the same fixed stars as from our earth, several of the 
planets, which ornament our sky, would not be visible, 
at least to the naked eye. A glance at PI. VIII. B. 
will f show the reason why Mercury, Venus, Mars, 
Jupiter and Saturn are visible to us inhabitants of the 
earth; Uranus, scarcely; Neptune, not at all with the 


i 


10 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


unassisted eye. From Neptune, on the contrary, we 
should easily distinguish those nearest him — Uranus, 
Saturn and Jupiter. Two of these will be found in 
the picture (PI. I. A.). If really on Neptune, we 
should naturally cast our eyes over, the heavens in 
search of the little planet on which we live. It would 
be too distant. (PI. VIII. B.). If we had a sufficiently 
powerful telescope, however, we should detect, very 
near the sun, a small star — a distant point of light 
— an atom of gold dust floating in free space among 
the millions of other worlds. That is our Earth, (star 
nearest the sun, PI. I. A.) 

(21.) Nearer view of the Earth. — Let us now 
leave Neptune in our Light-Car, and instead of visiting 
any other heavenly body, let us choose a point in free 
space so near that the earth would appear somewhat 
as it does in PI. I. B. We here arrest our Car in full 
sight of the earth, to explain the meaning of several 
terms connected with Astronomical or Mathematical 
Geography. Take PI. VIII. and PI. I. 

(22.) The Earth an oblate spheroid. — 

PI. I. B. You there see the earth — a round body — an 
orb — a sphere — a globe. A globe is a round spher¬ 
ical body whose surface is, in every part, equally 
distant from the center. What is a globe? The earth 
is so nearly a perfect sphere that it would not be 
possible to represent it correctly in a picture except 
by an absolutely spherical figure. Its stupendous mass, 
however, has been measured with wonderful accuracy 
and the discovery made that it is not a perfect sphere. 
It was once, and perhaps still is, a flexible body — that 
is, yielding and capable of being bent without breaking. 
By its diurnal rotation, the equatorial mass has been 
thrown a little out and the parts about the poles, in 
a corresponding degree, drawn in. Its circumference, 
at the equator, is 24,840 english statute miles; its 
polar circumference less. Its diameter is, therefore, 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


11 


greater at the equator than at the poles, the former 
7,907 2 / 5 miles; the latter 7,880 miles. The difference 
therefore is 27 miles, very little compared with the 
dimensions of the whole planet; each pole being only 
about 13 miles nearer the center than the equator is*). 
Its real figure is called an oblate spheroid, that is, a 
figure not absolutely a sphere. PI. VIII. M. gives the 
real figure of the earth but, of course, in an exagger¬ 
ated form. The same Plate (D.) gives the earth with 
notes of its dimensions. 

(23.) Axis — Pole — Revolution — Rota¬ 
tion. — PI. VIII. E. represents a wooden globe with 
an iron rod passing through its center and projecting 
at each extremity. One end of the rod rests on the 
floor, the other is held by my hand. Now suppose 
this globe to turn over and over on the rod from the 
direction of the word west to that of the word east. 
It would revolve or rotate on the rod from west to 
east. The rod would be its axis; the points of the two 
extremities, where they reach the circumference, would 
be the two poles of the globe. The two poles then 
are the only two points of the globe which do not 
revolve; and, remember, the N. Pole of the earth, during 
its whole annual revolution around the sun, always 
points to the N. Star. 

Now look at PI. I. B. The earth revolves in 
this way on its axis from W. to E. and in the same 
oblique position as the wooden globe in the diagram, 
with its N. Pole pointing to the N. Star. Only it 
has no rod. The earth and other planets revolve on 


*) It may not be superfluous to quote here, for the more 
advanced student, the following remark of Sir John Herschel 
(1866). “We have good reason to believe the equator to be 
not strictly circular, but in some degree, elliptic, the proportion 
of its greatest and least diameters not being yet precisely known, 
though very much nearer to equality than that of the equa¬ 
torial and polar diameters.” 



12 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


their axes, in the void of space, unsupported by any 
rod, floor or hand, except that of the Creator. 

“He hangeth the earth upon nothing” 

The axis of the earth in B. is represented by a 
line drawn through the earth’s center. Those two 
points, where the axis reaches the circumference of the 
earth, are called its poles. A man standing in the 
picture B., where the word west is written, would be 
carried completely around by the rotation of the earth, 
and would thus, in 24 hours, get a view of every 
portion of the celestial sphere (8). But a man standing 
at the N. Pole, immediately beneath the N. Star, would 
not be carried away from that position at all. The 
N. Star would be in his zenith directly above his head 
and would remain so during the whole rotation; 
although the rest of the heavens above his horizon 
would seem to revolve around him without ever descend¬ 
ing beneath his horizon. What is the earth’s axis? 
An imaginary straight line, on which the earth revolves, 
from west to east, once in every 24 hours. 

(24.) Remark. Speaking with astronomical accuracy, 
the earth revolves once every 23 hours 56 minutes 
4 seconds and nine one hundredths of a second. This 
daily rotation is performed with a punctuality which 
has no parallel within human knowledge. It has not 
varied one-tenth of a second in 2000 years. 

(25.) North Star and Great Bear. — The 

earth is surrounded on every side by stars (PI. I. B). 
Wherever we travel over its surface, we find the 
night heavens scattered with thousands, and, when 
observed through a telescope, thousands of millions 
of stars. One of these, the North Star or Polar Star, 
is always to be found in our heavens over the back 
of the constellation, the Great Bear. Its position may 
be seen in PI. VIII. F. 

You will easily recognize the Great Bear on any 
clear night and the two stars called the pointers, point- 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


13 


ing to the N. Star. In the course of 24 hours the 
Great Bear and all the stars of the heavens seem to 
revolve around the N. Star. The diagram represents 
the Great Bear at 4 different periods of the 24 hours 
— at 6 o’clock in the evening, 12 in the night, 6 in 
the morning, 12 the next day (noon). At the latter 
hour he is of course invisible on account of the 
daylight. 

(26.) Remark. He does not always stand with 
his feet toward your horizon at 6 o’clock in the evening. 
He stands with his feet toward your horizon once 
every 24 hours; but is seen in that position, at 6 o'clock 
in the evening , only once during the year. 

(27.) North Star stationary. — The N. Star 
is thus the only star which does not seem to revolve 
every 24 hours; the reason has been seen (PI. I. B. 
and PI. VIII. E). As the earth revolves from W. to 
E., the whole heavens appear to revolve from E. to 
W. As the N. Pole of the earth points to the N. 
Star, and the poles are the only points of the earth 
which do not revolve, so the N. Star is the only 
point of the heavens which does not seem to re¬ 
volve. 

(28.) Axis of the heavens — apparent daily 
revolution of the Celestial Sphere upon it. — 

PI. I. B. shows a line reaching through the earth’s 
center across the heavens to the N. Star, and to a 
corresponding point in the southern heavens. 

The axis of the heavens is an imaginary line 
identical") with the axis of the earth, but a prolongation 
of it. The entire hollow sphere of the starry heavens 
appears to revolve upon it from E. to W., and the 
northern extremity of it passes through, or very near 
the N. Star. 


*) Identical; the same; not different; from the Latin idem , 
the same. 



14 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


As the earth, with its N. Pole always pointing 
to the N. Star, revolves, once every day, on its 
imaginary axis, from W. to E. —, that motion makes 
the great starry concave, called the Celestial Sphere, seem 
to revolve, once every day, from E. to W., on the imagin¬ 
ary line called the axis of the heavens. The atmos¬ 
phere, forming an envelope around the earth about 
500 miles high, accompanies the planet in all its move¬ 
ments, with no other consequent disturbance than 
some periodical winds. Thus — the clouds — the birds 
— man — the atmosphere itself — are borne softly around, 
with the earth, in its annual and diurnal rota¬ 
tion. Ether , which is believed to fill all space, is 
too rare and delicate to offer any perceptible resistance; 
so that we are unconscious of the earth's motion and 
have no means of discovering it, except by watching 
disconnected objects, quite apart from it, and not mov¬ 
ing with it, such as the sun, moon and stars. These 
of course seem to revolve (that is, the Celestial Sphere, 
in which they appear fixed, seems to revolve) in a 
contrary direction, on an axis exactly corresponding to 
the earth’s axis, that is the axis of the heavens; — 
and with a point of the heavens which does not seem 
to revolve, corresponding to that polar point of the 
earth’s surface which really does not revolve — that 
is the pole — one of the poles, of the heavens. 

(29.) North — South — East — West. — 
(PI. I. B.) North, toward the North Pole; South, toward 
the opposite Pole. When you stand on the globe’s 
surface with your face toward the North Pole, your 
right hand is toward the East; your left toward the T Vest. 

(30.) Equator of the earth — hemisphere.— 

The equator is a large circle supposed to be drawn 
around the earth equi-distant from both poles. It is 
marked upon the earth in PI. I. B. It divides the 
globe into two equal parts, Northern hemisphere and 
Southern hemisphere (half sphere ). We often hear 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


15 


also the terms Eastern, Western, Land and Water 
hemispheres. Each half of the globe is a hemi¬ 
sphere. 

(31.) Sensible Horizon. — Wherever we are — 
on a plain, at sea, on a desert, on a mountain — we have 
a circular view. A circle appears drawn around us, 
beyond which we can see no more of the earth’s sur¬ 
face and no more of the etherial concave. At the 
center of this circle we stand; at the circumference of 
it, the earth and sky seem to meet. This circle — 
when applied to our earth — is called our sensible ho¬ 
rizon (from the Greek orizo, I terminate). It contracts 
or enlarges of course according to the elevation of the 
spectator. Upon the ocean, supposing our eye to be 
elevated 5 or 6 feet, the diameter of the sensible ho¬ 
rizon would be only about 3 miles. The summits of 
lofty objects, as a mountain or the masts of a ship, can 
be seen at a greater distance —- in favorable weather 
the Peak of Teneriffe at the distance of a hundred 
miles. Now what is the sensible horizon? It is a 
small circle, bounding our view of the earth's surface, in 
the center of which we stand and at the circumference of 
which the earth and sky seem to meet 

(32.) Rational Horizon. — If we were suspended 
(in our Light-Car) in free space, the earth not existing 
at all, how would the heavens appear? A vast, hollow 
sphere, of which we should see the whole interior. The 
Milky Way would present itself a continuous ring, one 
half over our head, the other, beneath our feet. There 
would thus be no horizon, either sensible or rational. 
As, however, we stand, not in free space, but upon the 
stupendous, convex globe, our view is quite different; 
and, wherever we stand upon its surface, we can see, 
never the whole, but always exactly one half of the 
Celestial Sphere. The other half is of course hidden 
by the globe itself; and our view is limited by a great 
circle of wdiich our eye forms the central point. This 


16 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


great circle is called our rational horizon. Thus the 
rational or true horizon divides the heavens into two 
equal parts, the one visible, the other invisible. These 
two horizons are in one sense the same. While the 
term sensible horizon is applied to the small circle 
which terminates our very contracted view of the 
earth’s surface, the term rational horizon is applied to 
that great circle which terminates our view of the immense 
celestial concave , cutting off the lower half of it from 
our sight. 

Now what is the rational horizon? You will not, 
perhaps, immediately understand what is meant by the 
further explanation that the rational horizon is also an 
imaginary plane extending through the center of the 
earth on every side to the starry heavens, thus cutting 
into two halves, both the heavens and the earth. The 
sun, moon and stars become visible to us, when they 
rise above this plane. 

(33.) Zenith — is that point of the visible ce¬ 
lestial sphere vertical to the spectator, that is, directly 
over the place where we stand. 

{34. ) Nadir (na-dir) — is that point of the 

heavens directly opposite the zenith — directly under 

the observer’s feet. A perpendicular line drawn from 
the zenith through the spectator and through the cen¬ 
ter of the earth would extend to the nadir. At noon, 
23. of June, a person on the tropic of Cancer would 
have the sun in his zenith. The center of the sun 

would be vertical, that is, exactly over his head. 
(Plate I. B.). Zenith and nadir are arabic terms. 

{35.) Right line or straight line — shortest 

line between two points. 

(36.) Curve line — a line which departs con¬ 

tinually from a direct course. 

JRemark. 1. The diagrams referred to in sections 
35 to 55 will easily be found in PI. VIII. 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


17 


2. Our plan requires that the pupil should not be 
instructed, at this stage of his studies, on any other 
points than those presented in the text. The subjects 
explained have reference to future lessons. As much 
care has been taken to exclude explanations not yet 
needed as to furnish those necessary. The object is 
not to teach Geometry or Astronomy, but Geography; 
and that, only ascending step by step. 

{37.) Parallel lines — lines extended in the 
same direction and equally] distant from each other 
throughout the whole length. 

(38.) Oblique lines. — Oblique means slanting. 
Oblique lines are such as are inclined toward each other 
from a direct line, whether horizontal or perpen¬ 
dicular. 

(39.) Horizontal line — a level line parallel to 
the horizon. 


(40.) Perpendicular line. — When one straight 
line stands upon another, so as to make the angles on 
each side equal to each other — that is, neither 
leaning to one side nor to the other — the lines are 
said to be perpendicular to each other — as in the 
diagram entitled “right angle”. 

(41.) Angle — is the space comprised between 
two straight lines that meet in a point. 

(42.) Right angle — formed when one right 
line intersects another right line perpendicularly. 


(43.) 

( 44 .) 


Acute angle — is less than a right angle. 
Obtuse angle — is greater than a right 


18 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(45.) Circle — Center. — A circle is a single 
curve line, every part of which is equi-distant from a 
point called its center . 

The six following sections describe parts of a 
circle (PI. VIII. Q): 


(46.) Circumference — The curve line that 
encompasses a circle — about three times the diameter. 


(47.) Arc. — any portion of the circumference 
of a circle. In the figure there are three arcs and 
three chords (T). 


(48.) Chord — a right line joining the extremities* 
of an arc (P). 


(49.) Diameter — (Q) a straight line from any 
point of the circumference passing through the center 
to the opposite point. It divides the circle into two 
equal parts. 


(50.) Radius (ra-di-us) — a straight line drawn 

from the center to the circumference. All radii of the 
same circle are equal to each other and each is half 
the diameter. Radii, the plural of radius. 


(51.) Quadrant — one quarter of a circle or 
90 0 (the circle being divided into 360 °). The cir¬ 
cumference of the globe, from the equator to the pole,, 
is 90°—that is a quadrant. 


(52.) Remark. The terms circumference and diameter 
are equally applied to a globe and other solid bodies. 

(53.) Concentric Circles — (P) are circles 

drawn within each other which, although of different 
dimensions, have a common center. 

(54.) Great Circle — Small Circle. — A 

circle drawn around the earth may be either great or 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


19 


small. A great circle passes around its greatest cir¬ 
cumference and divides its surface into two equal parts 
or hemispheres. The equator, therefore, is a great circle. 
The meridians are great circles. The ecliptic, some¬ 
times drawn upon maps and globes (E), is also a 
great circle. All other circles drawn around the earth 
are small circles. In PI. VIII. S. you see the equator 
drawn completely around the globe as a great circle, 
while the two tropics and the two polar circles appear 
as small ones. Examine the great and small circles 
upon all the figures of the earth in PI. I. 

(55.) Ellipse — Foci. — (P) An ellipse is an 
oblong figure, such as a circle would appear if held 
obliquely (as the cart-wheel b in PI. VIII. L.). The 
figure of an ellipse is described around two points, 
called its foci (the plural of focus). 

(56.) Latitude — upon the earth, is distance 
from the equator, north or south, reckoned toward 
the poles in degrees, minutes and seconds. In PI. VIII. 
R. you see the equator and four parallels drawn at 20 0 
N. lat., at 40°, 60° and 80°. There is also the same 
number of south parallels. The pole is of course at 
the 90° of latitude. No place can be farther from 
the equator than the pole; so no place can have a 
higher latitude than 90°. 

(57.) Parallels of Latitude — shortly called 
Parallels — are small circles supposed to be drawn 
around the earth parallel to, and at different distances 
from, the equator (R). 

(58.) Longitude — distance of a place, E. or W., 
from any given meridian. It is marked by the arabic 
figures on the equator, and, like latitude, in degrees, 
minutes, and seconds. (R). 

(59.) Meridians — great circles supposed to be 
drawn around the globe and to pass through the 

2 * 


20 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


poles of the earth, intersecting the equator at right 
angles. Each of them divides the sphere into two 
hemispheres. (R). For parallels and meridians see 
also all figures of the earth in PI. I. Point out there 
the parallels? the meridians? 

(60.) Degrees — Minutes — Seconds. — A 
circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts. 
Each part is called a degree, expressed by a small 
sign, thus (°). Take PI. VIII. T. Each degree is 
subdivided into 60 equal parts, called minutes, marked 
by a comma thus ('), and each minute is subdivided 
into 60 equal parts, called seconds, marked by two 
commas thus ("). We write 10 degrees, 5 minutes, 
and 4 seconds (as in T) —10° 5' 4". 

(61.) How an angle is measured. — An angle 
is measured (PI. VIII. T.) by making its sides radii 
of a circle and taking the length of the arc in degrees, 
minutes, and seconds. 

Diagram T. (Fig. a) shows a circle divided into 
360°. You must imagine each degree to be subdivided 
into 60', and each minute into 60". Fig. b shows a 
right angle measured on the arc of the circle, the 
arc here, being exactly a quarter of the circle, meas¬ 
ures 90°. In Fig. c the two lines e. /. form an acute 
angle of 23° 27' 26" (twenty-three degrees, twenty- 
seven minutes, twenty-six seconds). The two lines q . 
h. form the same angle of 23° 27' 26". The Fig.'c 
is drawn in the same position as that in which the 
earth holds itself in its annual journey around the 
sun. The line g represents the equator, the line h the 
ecliptic, or the plane of the ecliptic, or the plane of 
the earth’s annual orbit or path around the sun. Hence 
we say the equator is inclined to the ecliptic 
23° 27' 26". 

(62.) Remark. Young people who cannot com¬ 
prehend what is meant by such phrases as “inclination 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


21 


of the equator to the ecliptic”— u plane of the ecliptic” 
— u plane of the earth's orbit” — “earth's axis leans 23° 
27' 26" toward the ecliptic”, etc. — must not be dis¬ 
couraged. Let them mark these phrases well, whether 
they understand them or not; and the meaning will, 
we trust, become gradually clear. It is scarcely 
possible for an inexperienced student to grasp these 
ideas by any single explanation. He must, by a 
series of explanations, following each other in a care¬ 
fully arranged succession, slowly ascend to a point, 
where the earth’s true position, with its axis inclined 
toward the plane of its orbit, and thus holding itself 
obliquely as it annually moves around the sun, will at 
last break upon him, like the effect of a stereoscope. 
Hence our readers will find several apparent repeti¬ 
tions which however are not accidental, but premed¬ 
itated. 

(63.) Plane. — When a ball rolls on a level meadow 
or floor, it rolls on a plain. The solar system consists 
principally of the sun with eight planets revolving 
around him in nearly the same level or plane, as if 
they were rolling on a floor. The word plain means 
smooth — even — level — flat — without elevations or de¬ 
pressions. But when astronomers describe the planets 
revolving around the sun, all of them in about the 
same level, just as if they were rolling on a great 
level or plain in space, they use the word plane. 

PL VIII. G. will aid in giving an idea of the 
plane of an orbit and how planes may be inclined 
or perpendicular to each other. It represents the 
interior of a room. At A, the planets revolve on the 
plane of a floor; at C, on an inclined part of the ceil¬ 
ing; at B and D, on two walls perpendicular to each 
other and to the floor. We here see that the ex¬ 
pression, the “earth's orbit” and the “plane of the earth’s 
orbit” are not to be confounded with each other. The 
line marked “earth’s orbit” describes the path which 
the earth pursues around the sun. It is therefore a 


22 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


line — a curve line . The plane of the earth’s orbit is 
the level or plane in which this line or orbit lies, 
that is, in which the earth revolves. In PI. VIII. G. 
it is the floor or the walls or the ceiling. In the 
solar system itself, there is no floor; but the earth and 
planets revolve in about the same plane, as if there 
were a floor. That imaginary floor, extended out in 
every direction, is the plane of their orbits. PI. VIII. 
L. will help you to understand this. 

A cart-wheel is held up to your eye in different 
positions. At a, it is a circle. You have only to 
suppose the sun in the center, and then the circum¬ 
ference or tire of the wheel to be the orbit of the 
earth. You can hold it up before you so that the tire 
will appear a circle. If you were directly above the 
orbit of the earth, it also would be a circle, as at a. 
If you were to take another stand-point, half on one side, 
the earth’s orbit would appear as in b. But if you were 
to go quite on one side of the earth’s orbit, it could 
then be represented as a straight line, as in c. Your 
eye would then be said to be in the plane of the 
earth’s orbit. 

The earth’s orbit then is, in c, represented as a 
line; and the plane of the earth’s orbit is represented 
as a line. A figure of the earth is drawn in the 
wheel c to show the inclination of the axis and the 
equator, to the plane of the orbit. The equator, as we 
have seen, forms an angle of 23° 27' 26"; and the 
axis leans, from a perpendicular, 23° 27' 26". 

In B and C, Plate I., the earth is drawn in this 
position, and the orbit and the plane of the orbit are 
represented by a line instead of a circle. In D, the 
orbit is drawn as the wheel at b. In PI. VIII. B. the 
orbits of the planets are seen from the same stand¬ 
point as the wheel at a. 

(64.) Ecliptic — plane of the ecliptic — 
angle formed by the equator and the plane of 
the ecliptic. — When we look on the circle which 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


23 


the earth describes around the sun (PI. VIII. G.), we 
call that the orbit of the earth. But as we stand upon 
the earth, we are not conscious that the earth moves 
annually around the sun. It seems to us that the sun 
moves annually around the earth. The circle, in which 
he seems to move, is called the ecliptic. Thus the 
ecliptic must be defined by a double definition. First, 
it is the orbit in which the sun seems to move once 
every year around the earth. Secondly, it is the 
orbit in which the earth really does move once every 
year around the sun. In PI. VIII. G. you have several 
views of the earth’s orbit; in one, Mercury, Venus and 
the Earth revolve on the floor. The line in which the 
earth there revolves around the sun, is the earth’s orbit; 
the floor is the plane of the earth's orbit. But, remember, 
to the people upon the earth, the earth seems to stand 
still and the sun seems to go around the earth in a 
circle just like that in which the earth goes around 
the sun. The orbit of the earth, therefore, is the 
ecliptic, and the ecliptic, although it does not so appear 
to us, is, in reality, the orbit of the earth. They are 
quite the same. The floor is, at the same time, the 
plane of the earth’s orbit and the plane of the 
ecliptic. 

Now when we describe the position, in which the 
earth holds itself as it goes around the sun, it is usual 
to represent the plane of the ecliptic as a line and 
thus to show what angle the equator forms with it. 
PI. I. B. and C. show it clearly. The earth holds its 
-axis with regard to the ecliptic so that the equator 
forms an angle of 23° 27' 26". 

Astronomers, in describing the earth’s position, 
therefore, say “the obliquity of the equator is 23 0 27' 26” ”. 
The earth’s position may be described however in 
another way. The axis is inclined 23° 27' 26” toward 
the ecliptic; i. e. away from a perpendicular line. In 
PI. I. B. the line of the shadow forms the perpendic¬ 
ular and the distance of the N. Pole from that line 


24 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


is 23° 27' 26" — exactly the same as that from the 
ecliptic to the equator. 

Remark . We have now commenced to acquire 
some idea of various terms generally used in explain¬ 
ing the four seasons. These expressions will become 
clearer as we proceed; explanations of other terms will 
be added. 


SEASONS. 


(65.) Succession of Seasons. — For thousands of 
years, mankind vainly endeavored to account for the 
phenomena of the seasons. At one period, we are 
conscious of oppressive light and heat; at another, as 
if we had passed into a gloomy shadow, we suffer 
from darkness and cold. Spring and autumn bring 
days and nights equal all over the globe. In our mid¬ 
summer, the sun remains 12 hours above the horizon 
at the equator; 24 hours at the arctic circle; and 
6 months at the N. Pole. In our midwinter, the sun 
remains beneath our horizon 24 hours at the arctic circle 
and 6 months at the N. Pole. As man became better 
acquainted with the shape and surface of our planet, 
it was discovered that the S. hemisphere underwent 
the same ever varying revolutions of heat and cold, 
winter and summer as the N. hemisphere, with a per¬ 
fectly mathematical correspondence, except at diametric¬ 
ally opposite periods. These changes follow each other 
annually with extraordinary regularity. They were 
explained, about 300 years ago, by Copernicus, who demon¬ 
strated that the earth was not a fixed point , with the 
sun and heavens revolving around it, as, to its inhab¬ 
itants, seems to be the case; and as Ptolemy and 
other learned men had taught; but that it daily rotates,, 
on its axis, and, at the same time, moves annually 
around the sun. 

By the aid of PI. I. we shall find the causes of 


SEASONS. 


25 


the seasons to be as simple as the reason why the 
sunny side of a house is warmer than the shady side; 
or why one side of a house may be shady in the 
morning and sunshiny in the afternoon. 

(66.) Earth at midsummer. — In B. we have 
the earth, 21—23 June. You see the equator drawn 
equally distant from either pole. N. of equator are 
two parallel circles — tropic of Cancer and arctic 
circle; S. of equator — tropic of Capricorn and ant¬ 
arctic circle. 

Remark ten phenomena: 

Summer and longest day in N. hemisphere. 

Winter and shortest day in S. hemisphere. 

Greatest inequality in length of day and night 
everywhere except on equator. This inequality in¬ 
creases as you approach either pole — i. e., the day is 
longer, the farther you go N., till you come to a re¬ 
gion where there is no night at all; and the day is 
shorter, the farther you go S., till you come to a re¬ 
gion where there is no day at all. 

Sun’s center as far N. as tropic of Cancer. 

Within arctic circle no night. 

Within antarctic circle no day. 

At point of N. Pole, noon of a day which 
lasts six months. 

At point of S. Pole, midnight of a night which 
lasts six months. 

Between arctic circle and N. Pole (that is 
everywhere within artic circle), a day varying in 
length from 6 months to 24 hours (with a night the 
same in the antarctic circle). 

Between arctic circle and equator, a day vary¬ 
ing from 24 hours to 12 hours, and between the ant¬ 
arctic circle and equator, a night varying from 24 hours 
to 12 hours. 

Every season, in one hemisphere, exactly the 
reverse of that in the other. 

That is the state of our earth on 21—23 June. 


26 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(67.) Suppose earth stationary 23. June. — 

If the earth did not move in its annual orbit around 
the sun, this condition would be permanent. The 
daily revolution would never bring any point lying 
within the arctic circle away from the sun’s rays, nor 
any part within the antarctic circle out of the earth’s 
vshadow. At one pole, it would be uninterrupted sum¬ 
mer and day; at the other, uninterrupted winter and 
night. The condition of the countries lying on or 
near the equator would scarcely be changed from that 
which they actually always enjoy; except that those 
lying on tropic of Cancer would have the central 
point of the sun in their zenith permanently; while 
those on tropic of Capricorn would see him far to 
the North. We, in the United States, should have an 
unchanging summer, always long days and short nights, 
as on the 21 — 23. of June. The length of the day 
and night, at any given latitude, would never vary. 

(68.) Earth at midwinter. — PI. I. C is an illus¬ 
tration of the four seasons. The earth is visible at 
3 points of its orbit. A figure of the earth is supposed 
to be also at the point, opposite 2. (of course on the 
other side of the sun and thus hidden from our eye). 
At 1., we have the earth as already given in B.; 
3. represents the earth on the 23. of December. 
Point out these; name the 5 principal circles. 

The ten phenomena, marking the 23. of June, are 
here exactly reversed. 

Winter and shortest day in N. hemisphere. 

Summer and longest day in S. hemisphere. 

Greatest inequality in length of day and night 
everywhere except on equator, but in an inverted 
order; and in a ratio always increasing as you approach 
either pole. 

Sun’s centre as far S. as tropic of Capricorn. 

Within arctic circle no day. 

Within antarctic circle no night. 


SEASONS. 


27 


At the point called S. Pole, noon of a day which 
lasts six months. 

At the point called N. Pole, midnight of a night 
which lasts six months. 

Between antarctic circle and S. Pole (that is 
everywhere within antarctic circle), a day varying in 
length from 6 months to 24 hours (with a night the 
same in the arctic circle). 

Between antarctic circle and equator, a day 
varying in length from 24 hours to 12 hours (night 
the same from arctic circle to equator). 

Condition of equatorial regions little changed. 
Only difference — the central point of the sun lies 
perpendicular over tropic of Capricorn instead of tropic 
of Cancer. The people on the equator have him on 
the S., whereas on the 23. of June, they have him 
on the N. 

(69.) Solstices and Equinoxes. —• Let us now 
(C) follow the earth in its annual movement around 
the sun and watch the coming on and passing away 
of the summer, autumn, winter and spring. We are 
supposed to be in a position, where the orbit of the 
earth is turned toward us, like the edge of the wheel 
in PI. VIII. L. (fig. c )—that is where our eye is in the 
plane of the earth’s orbit. Thus we see the orbit not 
as a circle, but as a line. Now take PI. I. C. again. 
The earth is represented in 4 points of its orbit — 
1. summer solstice (N. hem.) 2. autumnal equinox; 3. 
winter solstice; 4. spring equinox (at the point exactly 
opposite to and behind the sun). 

(70.) Summer solstice. — Fig. 1 represents the 
earth as having reached the point of midsummer, the 
21 of June. It is here at its summer solstice (from 
two latin words, meaning the sun and to stand ), because, 
at this part of the year, from the shape of the earth’s 
orbit, and the inclination of its axis, the increase and 
decrease in the length of day and night are, for 


28 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


some days, less than usual. The earth thus seems to 
stand still. The sun thus seems to stand still. 

(71.) Autumnal equinox. — We behold the 
globe move slowly around in the direction of the 
arrow. In three months, it reaches the position of 
Fig. 2. It is then the 21. of September — our autumnal 
equinox. 

Which pole is there turned the most toward 
the sun? 

Neither one nor the other. Each pole is turned 
equally toward him. The earth is turned sideways 
toward him. The sun’s center is directly over the 
equator. He is said here to cross the equator, because 
he is just now in the zenith of the people on the 
equator. In Fig. 1., our midsummer day, he was in 
the zenith of the people on tropic of Cancer; in 
Fig. 3., our midwinter day, he will be in the zenith of, 
that is — vertical to — the people on tropic of Capricorn. 
At Fig. 2., our autumnal equinox (21. of Sept.), he is 
vertical to the people on equator who see him exactly 
over their head (only for one day) because he is passing 
on his way from tropic of Cancer to tropic of Cap¬ 
ricorn. At Fig. 4., he will cross the equator again 
on his way back to tropic of Cancer. He is thus 
said to cross the equator, or to cross the line, at our 
autumnal and spring equinoxes. In Fig. 2., the whole 
of the E. hemisphere is turned toward the sun’s 
light; the whole of the W. hemisphere is turned away 
from it. It is therefore, at this moment, midnight in 
America and noon in Asia; and the days and nights 
are equal on every part of the earth’s surface — 12 hours 
night and 12 hours day at the equator — also 12 hours 
night and 12 hours day at each of the two poles. 
This, and the corresponding opposite point of the year, 
are called equinoxes (from two latin words signifying 
equal and night.) It is called our autumnal equinox, be¬ 
cause it is autumn. We are just half way on our 
journey from the point where we had the longest 


SEASONS. 


29 


summer day, to the point where we shall have the 
longest winter night. 

What is the condition of the two poles at 
Fig. 2? 

The N. Pole has its autumnal equinox. Day and 
night are equal. It is just bidding adieu to its long 
summer and entering upon its long winter. The sun, 
which has been visible for six months, now sinks be¬ 
neath the horizon, to remain invisible for the next six 
months. He will reappear at that pole about the 21. 
of March, when the earth shall have completely passed 
on to the other side of the sun. 

At the S. Pole the condition is reversed. The 
sun is there just rising above the horizon, to remain 
till the 21. of March. Summer begins to break over 
the S. hemisphere. The days grow longer, the nights 
shorter. 

(72.) Winter solstice. — Fig. 3. Watch the 
progress of our planet three months more. It slowly 
advances to the point 3., where we have winter in the 
N. hemisphere with the longest night and the shortest 
day. This is called, in the N. hemisphere, the winter 
solstice; of course it is the summer solstice in the S. 
hemisphere. 

(73.) Spring or vernal equinox — In three 
months more, the earth moves to the point opposite 
that occupied by the central Fig. 2.; being covered by 
Fig. 2. and also by the sun, it is of course invisible 
on our Plate. It is now our spring or vernal equinox. 
Instead of bidding farewell to the summer, we are 
now advancing to meet that season. The phenomena 
of the autumnal equinox are here exactly repeated—the 
two poles turned neither toward the sun, nor away 
from him; the sun’s burning orb exactly over the 
heads of the nations on the equator (of course at their 
noon) so that each pole receives an equal portion of 
his light; day and night are equal; exactly 12 hours 


30 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


each, on every part of the earth’s surface — even at 
the poles. This entire equality of day and night (or 
of light and darkness) which at the equator is perpet¬ 
ual, extends over the whole earth twice a year, and 
lasts only 24 hours. 

(74.) Unequal length of seasons. — PI. VIIL 

K. The seasons are not of the. same length. In the 
N. hemisphere the winter is the shortest, the summer 
the longest. The autumn is shorter than the spring. 
The exact duration is given in the following table. 


Winter 

88 days 

19 

hours 

29 

minutes. 

Autumn 

89 , 

17 

55 

24 

55 

Spring 

92 , 

21 

55 

11 

55 

Summer 

93 „ 

13 

55 

56 

55 


The summer is thus 16 hours 48 minutes longer 
than the spring, and 4 days 18 hours and 17 minutes 
longer than the winter. The spring is 3 days 3 hours 
47 minutes longer than the autumn. 

Remark. We may well here pause to observe 
the exactness with which that divine creation, called the 
solar system, performs its operations. It has been 
seen that the time of the earth’s daily revolution, for 
thousands of years, has not varied the tenth of a second; 
and here, the relative length of each returning season 
is found to be always precisely the same. It is true 
that, on looking deeper , there appears certain irregular¬ 
ities. But, on looking still deeper, these supposed irreg¬ 
ularities are discovered to be limited by precise pe¬ 
riods and to be in conformity to regular eternal laws. 
May we not infer that the moral world is also guided 
by the same supreme, omnipotent Intelligence — that its 
seeming irregularities are also measured by periods, 
and subject to laws, and that they will finally disappear 
altogether, or appear only as necessary parts of one 
harmonious whole. 

Another phenomenon connected with the seasons 
presents a symmetrical correspondence in the S. hemi¬ 
sphere, where the above given inequalities of duration 


SEASONS. 


31 


in the N. hemisphere are diametrically reversed. The 
winter of the S. hemisphere is not only longer, but colder 
in proportion; and the summer, not only shorter but 
warmer in proportion. This would not be the case, if 
the earth’s orbit were a circle. The seasons, in that 
case, would be of equal length. The sun would be in 
the center of the circle. The distance traversed by the 
earth, during each of the four seasons, would then be abso¬ 
lutely equal, and the earth would move, during these 
four seasons, and over every portion of her orbit, with the 
same invariable velocity. This equality is disturbed 
by the real form of the earth’s orbit, which is not a 
perfect circle with the sun in its center. It is an 
ellipse with the sun, not in its center, but in one of 
the foci. 

In PI. VIII. K. the elliptical shape of the earth’s 
orbit is given in an exaggerated form, in order to 
make more apparent the way in which the unequal 
duration of the seasons results from it. 

Remark in this diagram: First. The two points 
of the earth’s orbit, the most distant from each other, 
are not the summer and winter solstitial points, B and 
E., but the greatest length of the ellipse is between 
the points A. and D. Secondly. The earth, at its 
winter solstice, is much nearer the sun than at its 
summer solstice; and that the two lines B. E. and C. 
F ’, drawn through the sun’s centre and the solstitial 
points, and through the sun’s centre and the equinoctial 
points, divide the earth’s elliptical orbit into four 
unequal parts. 

The earth, during our northern winter, passes from 
B . to F.; during the spring, from F. to E.; during 
the summer, from E. to C.; and during the autumn, 
from C. to B. again. It is plain therefore that it 
must traverse a greater distance, during the spring, 
and particularly during the summer, than during the 
autumn, and the still shorter winter. 

The inequality in the duration of seasons is 
augmented by another circumstance. The earth moves, 


32 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


with increased velocity, along those parts of the orbit 
which are nearest the sun (because it is there more 
exposed to the sun’s attractive power,) and relaxes its 
speed in proportion to its greater distance. Hence, 
during the spring and summer, its velocity is much less 
than during the autumn and winter. The long spring 
and summer are thus made longer by the diminished 
velocity of our planet, while the increasing speed with 
which it passes through the rest of the ellipse, makes 
the short autumn and winter still shorter. This 
cause and effect are reversed in the S. hemisphere, 
where, as we have already seen, the seasons are re¬ 
versed. Instead of having a long spring and a still 
longer summer — a short autumn, and a still shorter 
winter, it has a long winter, which corresponds in 
length to our summer; and a short summer which cor¬ 
responds to our winter — an autumn corresponding in 
length to our spring; and a spring to our autumn. 

The diagram shows the earth to be nearer the 
sun in winter than in summer. Our winter is never¬ 
theless cold from the fact that the N. hemisphere is 
so far turned away from the sun as to receive its 
rays obliquely; but the S. hemisphere has its summer 
just at the point where the earth is nearest the sun, 
so that the intensity of the heat in summer is greater 
than in winter from three causes: 

1. It receives the sun’s rays more vertically. 

2. It is nearer the sun than at any other period. 

3. The earth at that time moves slower*). 


*) The earth is about 3 million miles nearer the sun in 
winter than in summer. One would think the former season 
would, consequently, be the hotter. But, remark, two circum¬ 
stances neutralize the effect of this proximity. 1) It occurs at 
the period when the N. hem. leans the farthest away from the 
sun. 2) Much heat is lost by the greater velocity with which 
our planet moves through that part of its orbit. In the S. hem., 
just the contrary. There, it is hotter, the nearer the earth is 
to the sun. 


SEASONS. 


33 


The same causes, reversed, increase the intensity 
of the southern winter, which takes place at our sum¬ 
mer solstice, when the earth is farthest from the sun. 
The S. hem., then, receives the sun’s rays, not only 
obliquely, but from a greater distance . And, as the earth, 
at that period, moves more slowly, the southern winter is so 
much the longer. The intensity of the winter, however, 
is counterbalanced by that of the summer. The same, 
inversely, in the N. hem. so that the mean annual 
temperature is about equal N. and S. of equator. 

Remark. An error, in this description of the 
seasons, has been purposely left (last half of p. 32), 
that each pupil, who has followed the explanation 
under standingly, may detect and correct it. 

(75.) Earth and its orbit seen partly from 
above. — Let us now pass to D. We are here 
supposed to stand, neither at a point directly above the 
plane of the ecliptic, where the earth’s orbit would 
appear a circle, nor in the plane of the ecliptic, where 
the orbit must appear a line; but about half way 
between those two points, where the orbit appears, 
neither a line, nor a circle, but an oval, because the 
circle is fore-shortened * (as in the cart-wheel. PI. VIII. 
L. Fig. b.) We will now reconsider (PI. I. D.) the 
earth’s annual movement, beginning at the summer 
solstice. The ten phenomena are here, in the N. 
hem., still more visible. As we have taken a position 
somewhat over the N. hem., the S. Pole is, of course, 
invisible. Read again the ten phenomena of 23. 
June (66). By examining the earth (PI. I. D. 
fig. 1) you will better understand the causes of these 
phenomena. You see how the N. hem. here leans 
toward the sun; why, within the arctic circle, there 
can be no night; why the N. hem. has now its sum¬ 
mer and its longest day, etc. The arctic circle lies 


* Fore-shortened: — in painting —represented as it would 
appear to the eye when seen obliquely. 


3 



34 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


in the sunshine 24 hours, that is, during the whole 
diurnal revolution; because the whole arctic circle is 
turned toward the sun. It takes the earth three months 
to come round to the autumnal equinox (fig. 2), where 
just one half of the arctic circle lies in the shadow. Day 
and night must, consequently, be there equal. Three 
months later, at the winter solstice (fig. 3), the 
arctic circle, for 24 hours, lies in the shadow. The 
daily revolution brings no part of this space into the 
sun’s light. At the vernal equinox (fig. 4), one half 
the arctic circle is again in the light, and one half 
is in the shadow; giving thus, at the pole, and every¬ 
where else, on that day, perfect equality of day and 
night. As the earth passes, from the vernal equinox, 
to the summer solstice again, equality of day and night 
begins immediately to disappear. With every revolu¬ 
tion, the day, in our N. hem., becomes longer, the 
night shorter, the season more advanced, till we 
reach that point again (fig. 1), where the N. Pole is 
turned as far toward the sun as the earth’s position 
will ever permit. We no sooner reach the longest day 
(fig. 1), than the movement of the ever advancing earth 
begins to change our condition again. The days 
begin to shorten. Remark, however, the next section. 

(76.) Sun stands still. — At two points of the 
year—midsummer and midwinter — the sun is said to 
stand still, because, for a short period, the days have 
scarcely any perceptible increase or decrease. You have 
already learned, first, that the sun is stationary in the center 
of the solar system, and that the planets roll around 
him; secondly, that, to the inhabitants of the earth, our 
planet does not seem to move at all, but to be a fixed 
point, while the entire heavens seem to move around 
it, once every 24 hours. In addition, the sun, and 
the whole starry sphere, seem to float slowly around 
the earth once in about 365 days. When astronomers 
say the sun stands still, they, of course, speak only 
of this last apparent annual movement around the earth, 


CIRCLES. 


35 


which is nothing more than a reflection of the earth’s 
annual movement around the sun. Thus the term 
“the sun stands still” means only “the earth stands still.” 
But does the earth stand still? Certainly not. Yet, at 
the two solstitial points, (keep your eyes on fig. 1. D) 
the days remain, during several diurnal revolutions, 
almost exactly of the same length. This results from 
the fact that the inclination of the earth’s axis, and the 
elliptical form of its orbit, are such, that the path of the 
sun, instead of being, as usual, N. or S., appears 
parallel to the equator, E. and W. He goes, for a 
time, neither N. nor S., but lingers in the tropic of 
Cancer. The days remain, therefore, of about the 
same length. Hence has arisen the word solstice; and 
the term, the U sun stands still ”. 

Remark. 1. We abstain from many explanations 
indispensable to more advanced students — particularly 
students of astronomy — but which would be out of 
place in these lessons. When we say, for instance, 
the sun is stationary in the center of the solar system, 
we mean relatively. He is not, strictly speaking, in 
the center; neither is he stationary. He not only revolves 
on his axis, but he moves, in a kind of orbit, around 
his central point. In addition, he and all his family 
of worlds, are sweeping forward, probably in an 
unimaginable circle or ellipse, around an unknown 
center. 

2. The ellipticity of the earth’s orbit, in PI. I. D, is 
not intended to show the real form of the orbit. It re¬ 
sults merely from the circle being held up to the eye ob¬ 
liquely. The real ellipticity (22) is too slight to be repre¬ 
sented on any sheet, as other than a circle. But, although 
exaggerated, the elliptical form in D, illustrates correctly 
one of the reasons why, at this point of the orbit, the 
sun, for several days, scarcely changes his declination. 


(77.) Four circles. — Remark. In the 8 pictures 
(PI. I), from E to M, the earth is drawn at its summer 
solstice (23. June). In E, F, G, H, your eye is 

3* 


36 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


supposed to be in the plane of its orbit and you see 
four different points of the diurnal revolution, by which 
New York passes through the 24 hours. In I, you are 
exactly over the N. Pole. You see the six months day 
of the arctic circle (midsummer of N. hem.). In K, 
you are exactly over the S. Pole, with the N. Star on 
the opposite side of the earth. You there see the six 
months night of the antarctic circle (midwinter of 
S. hem.). 

Figs. B, C, D, will enable you to understand 
why the four circles are drawn where they are. If 
the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the ecliptic, 
there would be no change of seasons; and the length 
of day and night would be always equal. There would 
be no regularly defined zones and no reason for the 
arctic or tropical circles. It is the inclination of the 
axis which brings the earth into the different positions 
seen in PI. I. figures C and D. 

Remark. Most of the figures on PI. I. ought to 
be consulted during the examination of the circles, but 
particularly B, C, D. 

(78.) Arctic Circle. — In this position (B), the 
shadow has receded from the N. Pole as far as it 
ever can. There is thus, around the pole, a circular 
space, out of the earth’s shadow and in the sun’s light 
during one diurnal rotation. The arctic circle describes 
the limits of this space. Its entire circumference can 
be seen only on D. 

(79.) Antarctic Circle. — A similar space around 
the S. Pole (B), is described by the antarctic circle; 
and the same conditions are, at the same moment, 
repeated there, except inversely. While the arctic 
circle remains in the sunshine, independent of the 
earth’s revolution, the antarctic circle remains in the 
shadow. 

The regions within the arctic and antarctic circles 
are the only 'parts of the globe’s surface where the sun ever 


CIRCLES. 


37 


remains 24 hours either above or below the horizon. And, 
remember, that, while, on the circle itself, the day, or the 
night, is never longer than 24 hours, it lengthens, as we 
advance from the circle to the pole, until, at the point of 
the pole itself, it has a duration of six months. Now 
what is the distinguishing feature of arctic circle? — 
antarctic circle? And what are the conditions there of 
day and night?* 

(80.) Tropic of Cancer. — If the earth’s axis 
were perpendicular to the ecliptic, the sun’s center 
would always be vertical over the equator; but, as the 
axis leans 23° 27’ 26", from a perpendicular, toward 
the ecliptic — that depresses the equator 23° 27' 26" 
below the ecliptic, and brings a corresponding point of 
the earth 23° 27' 26" N. of the equator (21. June), 
under the perpendicular rays of the sun. A circle, 
supposed to be drawn at this point around the earth, 
is called the tropic of Cancer. This can best be seen 
in C. The sun is never vertical over any point of the 
earth N. of this tropic; and that is why the circle is 
drawn just there. When the N. hem. turns so far toward 
the sun that his center is vertical over this point, he 
seems to turn and go back again. Hence the word 
tropic (from the Greek word trepein, to turn). What 
is the distinguishing feature of the tropic of Cancer? 

(81.) Tropic of Capricorn. — The tropic of 
Capricorn marks, (PI. I. C. fig. 1) in the S. hem., the 
same phenomena, at the opposite period of the year. 
Fig. 3 shows the earth at our northern winter solstice. 

Instead of the N. hem., the S. hem. is turned, 
toward the sun, as far as it ever can be — far enough to 
bring the sun vertical over the tropic of Capricorn. 
His rays are never vertical over any point S. of this tropic. 


* The teacher is here again reminded lo put such questions, 
where not already found in the text. 



38 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Hence the spaces, between these two tropics, are the 
only spaces on the surface of the globe which ever 
receive the vertical rays of the sun. Name the distin¬ 
guishing features of tropic of Capricorn. 

(82.) Sun’s apparent semi-annual movement 
N. and S. between the tropics. — Look at the 
summer solstice (PI. I. C). There the sun is in the 
zenith of the people on tropic of Cancer. In our 
autumnal equinox (fig. 2), his center is perpendicular 
over the equator. At our winter solstice (fig. 3), his 
center is perpendicular over the tropic of Capricorn. 
At our vernal equinox (fig. 4), it is over the equator 
once more. At our summer solstice, it is directly over 
the tropic of Cancer again. Thus, to the people of 
the earth, the sun seems to come into the northern 
heavens as far as tropic of Cancer, then to pass S. as 
far as tropic of Capricorn, and thus to be, continually 
and forever, passing vertically over their heads north 
and south, between those two circles or tropics crossing 
the equator twice a year. 

(83.) Four seasons at equator. — Take PI. I. 
C. Suppose yourself on the equator, in that figure of 
the earth marked 1. (our summer solstice). We have 
here one of the equatorial winters. For, in this zone, 
there are two winters and two summers every year. 
The sun’s center is as far away from the equator, on 
the N., as it ever can be. The tropic of Cancer 
marks the limit. The sun will now begin to 
turn back toward the equator. In three months 
his center will be exactly over the equator (2). That 
is one of the equatorial midsummers. From figs. 2 
to 3, he will, after having crossed the equator, be 
passing S. of it. At 3, his center will be vertical, as 
far S. as it ever can be, on tropic of Capricorn. The 
equator, now, has its second annual winter. At 4., 
invisible in the Plate (supposed to be on the opposite 
side of the sun), the equator has its second midsummer. 


CIRCLES. 


39 


At fig. 1, the sun has withdrawn as far N. again as 
tropic of Cancer. The equator has once more its 
winter. During the successive seasons, as will easily 
be understood by examining that point of the equator 
intersected by the shadow (fig. 1 ), day and night are 
of equal length. 

Remark, also, the two midsummers, at equator, 
correspond to our two equinoctial points — while one 
midwinter corresponds to the northern midsummer 3 and 
the other midwinter to the southern midsummer. The 
winters of this equatorial region are marked by rain 
instead of cold. 


(84.) Four seasons at tropic of Cancer. — 

Suppose yourself (PI. I. C. Fig. 1 ) on tropic of Cancer, 
in Mexico for instance. It is midsummer, about 
23. June. You have, on that day, the burning sun 
directly over your head. He does not, however, seem 
to move farther N. He seems to stand still a few days 
(except, of course, the apparent motion arising from 
the daily rotation of the earth). He then turns toward 
the S., rising every morning on a more southern paral¬ 
lel. The day and night cannot here be equal, as on 
the equator. The day is about 14 hours; the night, 
about 10. As the earth moves around to fig. 2, the 
day and night are equal again; because the sun has 
moved S. as far as the equator. At fig. 3, the sun 
rises as far S., as tropic of Capricorn. Your night is 
now 14 hours long, your day only 10. 


(85.) Four seasons at arctic circle. — Place 
yourself at Behring Strait, on the arctic circle (PI. I. 
D. fig. 1). Here, ^bout 23. June, you can see the 
sun all night — that is during the whole diurnal rotation. 
You have a circle which does not turn away from the 
sun, at this point of the year, during 24 hours. Each 
day, however, that circle contracts. You have less 
sunshine every 24 hours. Thus your days shorten and 
your nights lengthen. At fig. 2, your day and night 


40 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


are equal. At fig. 3, the season of fig. 1 is exactly 
reversed. During one diurnal revolution of the globe, 
you have, here, no view of the sun at all; but the 
circle of darkness begins to contract, just as the circle 
of light did at 1. Your day lengthens again till, at 
fig. 4, it is 12 hours, and it continues to lengthen, till, 
at fig. 1, your night, during a single revolution of 
the globe, ceases altogether. 

(86.) Four s easons at North P ole. — Take your 
stand at the point called the N. Pole (D. 1). You have, 
here, the sun as high in the heavens as he ever can 
be. He wheels, or rather seems to wheel, without 
disappearing at all, in small circles around the N. Starj 
because the point of the earth, on which you stand, 
wheels in small circles around the pole, without being 
withdrawn from his rays. He has been shining, 
without interruption, since you left the point 4. He 
continues to shine, till you reach fig. 2 (that is six 
months); but wheels lower and lower toward the hori¬ 
zon till, at 2 (our autumnal equinox), his fiery globe 
disappears altogether, and you will not see him again 
for six months. He has passed S. of the equator. He 
has crossed the equator, and thus sunk beneath your 
line of vision. He has descended beneath your 
rational horizon (32). At 3, he is at farthest S. point 
— the tropic of Capricorn. The night circle around 
the N. Pole has reached its greatest circumference, 
because the sun is as far beneath your horizon as he 
ever can be. We call this circumference the arctic circle. 
The day after you leave 3, the shadow begins to 
contract. It grows smaller and smaller, till, at 4, it 
recedes from the point of the pole. You then catch, 
once more, a glimpse of the sun and do not lose 
sight of him again for six months. 

Remark. The rising of the sun, after his prolonged 
absence, is a great event to the poor tribes of these dreary 
regions. The first sign of his gradual reappearance 
is hailed with extravagant joy, and his slow approach 


ZONES. 


41 


watched with extraordinary interest. We may imagine 
also with what emotions they behold his burning orb 
slowly descend, and at last entirely disappear beneath 
their horizon. 

(87.) Five Zones. — The four circles thus divide 
the surface of the globe into five regions or zones —the 
north frigid zone , the north temperate zone, the torrid zone 
the south temperate , zone and the south frigid zone (PI. 
VIII. N.). Name these 5 zones and describe their 
limits. 

(88.) North Frigid Zone. — The phenomena of 
this zone are (PI. I. C.). 

1. It is a circle, every part of which, at the sum¬ 
mer solstice, has the sun above its horizon during one 
entire revolution of the earth on its axis. 

2. At its central point (the pole), the sun does 
not set for six months. 

3. At the intervening points, between the center 
and the circumference of the circle, the sun remains 
above the horizon from 6 months to 24 hours, accord¬ 
ing to the different parallels of latitude. 

4. At the winter solstice, the conditions of day 
and night are diametrically reversed. The whole of 
its area has the sun beneath its horizon, during one 
entire revolution of the earth on its axis, and the 
length of the night increases from 24 hours to 6 months, 
as you approach from the circumference of the circle 
to the central point — the pole. Of course the seasons 
correspond to the conditions of day and night. 

5. While the sun’s rays are thus withdrawn in the 
winter, they fall so obliquely on this region, even in 
the summer, that, except for a very brief period, the 
heat and vegetation are feeble, and the frigid zone is 
thus, from intense cold, scarcely inhabitable by human 
beings. Name distinguishing features of the N. frigid 
zone. 


42 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(89.) South Frigid Zone. — The conditions of 
the N. frigid zone are exactly reproduced, except at 
opposite points of the year. 

(90.) Torrid Zone. — 1. Some part of it always 
has the sun in its zenith. 

2. Every part of it receives the sun’s perpendicular 
rays twice a year. He seems to come N. till (our 
summer solstice) his center is in the zenith of places 
on the tropic of Cancer. He then turns and moves S., 
that is, he rises every day at a more southerly point 
than on the preceding day, until (our winter solstice) 
his center is in the zenith of places on the tropic of 
Capricorn, when he turns and begins to go back 
toward the N. 

3. On the equator, and in a zone about 6 0 on 
each side of it, the day and the night are always of 
equal length, namely 12 hours. The winter cold, as 
in the four other zones, is unknown. 

4. The sun never remains above, nor below, the 
horizon an entire revolution of the earth on its axis. 
Name distinguishing features of torrid zone. 

(91.) North Temperate Zone. — 1. It has 

(unlike the frigid zones), never the sun above, nor below, 
the horizon during a revolution of the earth. 

2. It has (unlike the torrid zone), never the sun’s 
rays vertical over any part. 

3. The length of day and night (except at equinoxes) 
is never equal (as on the equator), but far less unequal 
than within the polar circles. Name distinguishing 
features of N. temperate zone. 

(92.) South Temperate Zone. — The same pe¬ 
culiarities, but at opposite period of the year. June, 
July, August, are the winter months, while December, 
January and February are the summer. 


LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT. 


43 


(93.) Different length of day and night in 
different zones. — A glance at the figures of the 
earth on PI. I. will show that, on 21. June, the rela¬ 
tive length of day and night must be different at every 
parallel of latitude, from arctic circle to antarctic circle. 
(Fig. F.) The arctic circle will have the longest day, 
namely 24 hours. The day will be shorter, and the 
night longer, on places in proportion as they are 
nearer to the antarctic circle. This condition of course 
will be exactly reversed at C. 3. Half way between 
1 and 3, (that is, at the equinoctial points), the day 
and the night will be equal in length. At the different 
points of the earth’s orbit, between the summer solstices 
again, these conditions will be reversed, and the rela¬ 
tive length of day and night will change precisely as 
the earth moves forward from one of these points to 
the other. From the circumference of the arctic and 
antarctic circles to their centers (i. e. the poles), the 
length of the day, according to the parallel of latitude, 
will vary, from 24 hours to 6 months, with the earth’s 
annual revolution, the phenomena being exactly reversed 
every six months. 

(94.) Table of different length of day and 
night, — 23. June, on 20 different parallels of latitude. 

On equator, and 6 degrees each side of it, day 


[ night always . . 





12 hours. 

On parallel 16° 

44' 

the longest day 

13 - 

30° 

48' 

- 

- 

- 

14 - 

41° 

24' 

- 

- 

- 

15 - 

49° 

2' 

- 

- 

- 

16 - 

54° 

31' 

- 

- 

- 

17 - 

58° 

27' 

- 

- 

- 

18 - 

61° 

19' 

- 

- 

- 

19 - 

63° 

23' 

- 

- 

- 

20 - 

64® 

50' 

- 

- 

- 

21 - 

65° 

48' 

- 

- 

- 

22 - 

66° 

21' 

- 

- 

- 

23 - 

67° 

23' 

- 

- 

- 

1 month. 



44 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


On parallel 69° 51' the longest day 2 months. 

73° 40' - - - 3 

78° 11' - - 4 

84° 5' - - - 5 

90° 0' - - - 6 

You will understand this better by PI. I. fig. F. 
where the six months day at the N. Pole, in our mid¬ 
summer, and the six months night and winter at the 
S. Pole, in our midsummer, may be comprehended at 
a glance, with the variations, as to length, on the different 
intervening parallels. 

(95.) Morning — Noon —Afternoon — Night at 
New York. — By the 8 figures of the earth (PI. I), 
particularly from E to H, you see how the continents, 
oceans, etc., are situated, with regard to zones and 
climates; and how differently they are affected by the 
motions of the earth, as to .the length of day and 
night, etc. Bear in mind that, in all these figures, the 
earth is represented at our summer solstice. Describe 
condition of N. hem. Midsummer and longest day . 
Describe S. hem. Midwinter and shortest day. At the 
point called N. Pole. Six months day. At the point 
called S. Pole. Six months night. Where is the sun’s 
center? Vertical over tropic of Cancer. Describe condi¬ 
tion of arctic circle. It has the sun above the horizon 
24 hours. Antarctic circle? Sun beneath the horizon 
24 hours. 

As the globe revolves from west to east (E), the 
point, marked New York, has moved from the shadow 
into the light. At New York, therefore, in E, it is 
morning or forenoon. At F, it is noon. In G, New 
York is on the opposite side of the globe, and moving 
toward the shadow; it is therefore afternoon. In II, 
New York has passed into the shadow and nearly out 
of it again; it is therefore night, but not long before 
sunrise. When the diurnal movement shall carry New 
York to the limit of the shadow, the sun will rise. 
You see here, in H, that the sun rises earlier, at mid- 


NORTH POLE AND NORTH STAR. 


45 


summer, to places on the same meridian, in proportion 
as they lie nearer the N. Pole, till the point of the 
arctic circle, after which the sun remains above the 
horizon the whole 24 hours. The sun, in H, is just 
rising over Hudson Str. which is on the same meridian 
as the Republic of Ecuador (S. America). But the 
sun will not rise, in the latter place, till 4 hours later. 
By the table of the different length of day and night 
(F), we perceive that New York has the sun about 
15 hours above the horizon, on our longest summer day; 
of course, 15 hours beneath our horizon, on the longest 
winter night. 

(96.) Why does the N. Pole aways point to 
the North Star? — The attentive student will find 
little difficulty in understanding the previous lessons. 
He may, however, desire a more particular answer to 
one question. The earth moves annually in an immense 
ellipse around the sun and, at midsummer and midwin¬ 
ter (PI. I. C.), occupies two positions about 200 million 
miles distant from each other. Its axis, at the same 
time, retains its parallelism — that is, as we have just 
seen, at every point of its orbit, remains parallel to 
itself at every other point of its orbit. How then can 
the N. Pole always point to the North Star, during its 
whole annual revolution around the sun? This pheno¬ 
menon results from the stupendous distance of the North 
Star which is so amazing that the whole solar system, 
in comparison, dwindles to a mere needle-point. We 
have already (17 and 19) touched on the subject. In 
PI. I. B., you will observe a small circle, little more 
than a dot, drawn in the line between the N. Pole 
and the North Star. That is intended to represent the 
comparatively insignificant space occupied by our solar 
system among the fixed stars. You must suppose the 
earth, revolving around the sun, within that little circle; 
you will not require any farther explanation, why the 
N. Pole always points to the North Star. 


46 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


QUESTIONS UPON THE SEASONS. 


(97.) There are, as we have seen four causes which 
co-operate to produce the seasons actually existing on 
our planet: 

1. The inclination of the earth’s axis to the 
plane of its orbit. 

2. The annual movement of the earth around 
the sun. 

3. While moving annually around the sun, the 
earth remains always in the same plane. 

. 4. The axis retains its parallelism. 

Now repeat the first of these causes. The inclina¬ 
tion of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit. How 
does that cause the seasons? Would there be no seasons, 
if the earth’s axis were not inclined? Would the sun 
not be there and shine? Would there not be heat and 
coldt There would be seasons. What would be the 
condition of the globe, if the earth’s axis were not 
inclined, — that is, if it were, we will say, perpendicular 
to the plane of its orbit? Take PI. I. C. fig. 1. How 
would the axis then be situated with regard to the 
line of the shadow? It would be parallel to it. How 
would the equator lie with regard to the earth’s orbit 
or ecliptic? It icould be parallel to it. What season 
would it be in the torrid zone? Midsummer. In the 
two temperate zones? Neither midsummer nor midwinter, 
but betiveen the two—about the same temperature as our 
spring or autumn. What in the frigid zone? Would 
it be midwinter or midsummer there? It would be 
there also a season between the two. We see, therefore, 
that there would be seasons, but different from our 
present seasons. As the axis would form a perpetual 
right angle with the ecliptic, the N. Pole would, of 
course, never be turned toward the sun, as in fig. 1., 
nor away from it, as in fig. 3. Midsummer and mid- 


RECAPITULATORY QUESTIONS. 


47 


winter, therefore, would never exist in the frigid and 
temperate zones, nor anywhere else; but there would 
be an everlasting midsummer in the torrid zone. What 
would be the condition of the earth with regard to day 
and night? Day and night would be always equal every¬ 
where upon the earth's surface. What is it then which 
causes our actual midsummer and midwinter N. and 

S. of the tropics? Ihe inclination of the earth's axis to 
the plane of its orbit. We have observed that the prin¬ 
cipal result of the inclination of the earth’s axis is our 
present midwinter and midsummer N. and S. of the 
tropics. What effect does this inclination have upon 
the torrid zone? At present, the inclination of the axis 
causes the sun to pass from the tropic of Cancer to the 
tropic of Capricorn, and then from the tropic of Capricorn 
to the tropic of Cancer again, once every year; whereas, if 
the axis were perpendicular, the sun would be always in 
the zenith of the people on the equator. To what extent 
is the axis inclined? Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven 
minutes, twenty-six seconds. What angle (PI. VIII. T. 
fig. c.) does the axis form with the perpendicular line 
of shadow ? Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven minutes, 
twenty-six seconds What angle does the equator form 
with the ecliptic? Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven 
minutes, twenty-six seconds. You say the axis leans 
23° 27' 26", from a perpendicular, toward the ecliptic 
— what angle does that perpendicular form with the 
ecliptic? An angle of 90° or a quadrant (see PI. VIII. 

T. fig. b). Now if the perpendicular line of shadow 
form an angle of 90° with the ecliptic, state again, 
what angle the axis forms with the perpendicular? 
Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven minutes, twenty-six seconds. 
Now state, what angle the axis forms with the ecliptic. 
Of course it will be 90°, less 23° 27' 26"; and as it 
is a somewhat slow process to deduct 23° 27 ’ 26" from 
90°, we will give you the answer — 66° 32' 34". Now 
state what is the angle formed by the axis with the ecliptic? 
Sixty-six degrees, thirty-two minutes, thirty-four seconds. If 
the axis were itself perpendicular to the ecliptic, it would 


48 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


form a right angle — that is, an angle of 90°. As it 
leans 23° 27' 26", from a perpendicular, toward the 
ecliptic, of course its angle with the ecliptic will be 
23° 27' 26" less than 90°*. Now supposing the axis 
to be always perpendicular to the ecliptic, how would 
the seasons be affected by the annual revolution of the 
earth around the sun? Not at all . There would be 
no succession of seasons. There would be no variety. 
But would there not be one slight change of tempera¬ 
ture? (see note to 74 p. 32). Yes, as the earth is, at 
one point of the year, 3 million miles nearer the sun than 
at the opposite point, the temperature would slightly rise 
everywhere on the earth's surface at one period of the year. 
The inclination of the earth’s axis, therefore, explains 
why, in fig. 1. of C., it is summer in the N. hem. and 
winter in the S. hem. But another cause is required 
to explain the succession of the seasons. For if the 
earth remain stationary at fig. 1, the seasons would 
remain stationary also. If the sun revolved around the 
earth in the plane of the ecliptic, as Ptolemy thought, 
there would, indeed, be a succession of seasons. But 
the evidences of the fixity of the sun, as the center of 
the solar system, are too overwhelming to be doubted; 
the annual movement of the earth is demonstrated 
by unanswerable arguments. We may, therefore, take 
the earth’s annual movement as a second cause. But 
suppose the earth, while moving annually around the 
sun, were frequently to rise above that orb (so to speak); 
and again to sink beneath it, without keeping in an 
unchanged level — what would be the effect of that on 
our seasons? A proportionate irregularity of the seasons. 
Yes, if our planet were to sink below the sun, we should 
have the sun of course above the N. Pole — tropical 
heat in the arctic circle — ice and snow on the equator 
— in the antarctic circle, an increased intensity of cold 
and darkness. What, therefore, is the third cause of 


* The teacher will perceive that this is not a mere re¬ 
petition. 



RECAPITULATORY QUESTIONS. 


49 


the regularity with which the seasons follow each other? 
The earth always moves in the same plane . Yes, the earth’s 
center never rises above , nor falls below , that line (PI. I. 
C) representing the ecliptic. Lastly. Suppose the earth’s 
axis should sway backward and forward, like the masts 
of a rolling ship at sea — what would be the effect of 
that on our seasons? The effect would be, an irregularity, 
similar to that which would result, if the planet were to pass 
above or beneath the plane of the ecliptic. The seasons would 
fluctuate in proportion to the vacillation of the axis. 
The N. Pole would sometimes bend down toward the 
ecliptic, presenting the N. hem. more broadly to the 
sun; sometimes it would turn away from the sun, into far 
more intense cold and darkness than our polar regions 
have ever experienced. Equatorial heat and polar cold 
would suddenly displace each other, according as the 
huge globe reeled to and fro. God has ordained it 
otherwise. He who “hath meted out heaven with the 
span”, hath said: “While the earth remaineth, seed-time 
and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, 
and day and night, shall not cease”. Not only the axis 
is inclined so many degrees, minutes and seconds, 
to the plane of the orbit, but, during its entire 
annual journey around the sun, it keeps invariably 
its axis at the same angle with that plane. How 
do you describe this circumstance, in other words. 
The earth’s axis always retains its parallelism (as 
in PI. VIII. H). What do you mean by the axis re¬ 
taining its parallelism? I mean that the axis, at every 
point of its orbit, remains parallel to itself, at every other 
point of its orbit. Now name the four circumstances 
which explain the seasons, and the regularity with 
which they succeed each other (p. 46). 

(98.) Remark. 1. Bear in mind, we repeat, that this 
sketch of Astronomy has been strictly confined to those 
points required by the student of Geography. For 
such as desire to study Astronomy farther, the writer 
has prepared a third volume (6), designed to give 

4 


50 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


an outline view of that science, in such a simple form, 
as will be intelligible to all who read it attentively, in 
connection with its accompanying plates. 

2. It may be added, in conclusion, that the term 
u parallelism of the earth's axis ”, like many others, must 
be taken relatively. During 12,000 years, there is a 
slow departure from this absolute parallelism , so that, 
instead of the N. Star, the brilliant star Vega (in Lyra) 
will, at the end of that period, be our polar star. This, 
and other movements, of which we here say nothing, 
take place with such perfect regularity, and according 
to such fixed laws, that we can calculate their opera¬ 
tions with certainty. Thus we know that the N. Pole 
of the earth, in about 26,000 years, will, once more, 
as at present, be directed to the N. Star. — Again: The 
constellations, from time immemorial, have remained in 
the same relative position, so that the orbs composing 
them may well be called fixed stars. But they are 
fixed only temporarily. During the next two or three 
million years, each star will float far away into a 
remote point of space. The groups, called constellations, 
will separate. The seven stars of the Great Bear, 
those for so many ages burning in Taurus (PI. VIII. 
A), Alcyone, Aldebaran, and others, will recede and 
be lost to each other. The “bands of Orion” will be 
“loosened”. — The starry heavens will present an entirely 
different appearance. But, as the whole universe seems 
a machine, regularly framed as a clock, (although 
performing its movements on a scale so stupendous 
that the time, since the human race first appeared 
on the earth, is too short to afford more than some 
indications of them,) we may presume that all these 
changes are equally premeditated, and regulated, by 
that divine Power who created “ the heavens and the 
earth and all the host of them.” 


PART II. 

PHYSICAL OR NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 


NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS 
OF THE GLOBE. 

(99.) Prefatory Observations. — By the aid 
of figures A, B, C, D (FI. I), we have endeavored to 
acquire some idea of astronomical geography. 
The rest of the pictures bring us nearer to the earth, 
and enable us to examine several striking objects upon 
its surface. We here commence the study of physical 
or natural geography. The 8 circular views of 
the earth are called Planispheres, because each one rep¬ 
resents a sphere upon a flat surface or a plane. They 
are also called Hemispheres. 

WESTERN HEMISPHERE. FIG. E. — N. Pole is 
at top; S. Pole, at bottom; equator, equi-distant be¬ 
tween them. Your eye is here supposed to be in plane 
of the equator. 

EASTERN HEMISPHERE. FIG. G. — Poles and 
equator seen from same stand-point, as in previous fig. 
(E), only the earth has made a half revolution. 

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. FIG. I. — Here We 

have changed our position. We are oner the N. Pole 
— in its zenith. Hence we look down on that half of 
planet, N. of equator. The equator, therefore, 


our 



52 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


forms the circumference of our circular view — N. Pole,, 
its center. As the earth revolves, the point, called N. 
Pole, will remain stationary and the objects of N. hem- 
will move around in circles, without disappearing. 

southern hemisphere, fig. K. — Same con¬ 
ditions as in fig. I, except that, instead of being over 
North Pole, we have moved around to a point exactly 
in zenith of South Pole. We are looking down upon 
that half of the globe, south of equator. The equator 
is the circumference of our circular view — S. Pole, 
its center. With earth’s revolution, the objects will 
move in circles around the point called S. Pole. 
Remark, we were supposed to look down upon the earth 
in fig. I. But, opposite South Pole (K), should we not 
look up at the earth? How can we look down upon 
it? Because, when we break away from our childish 
ideas of up and down, we discover that, in reality, 
there is no such thing except relatively. Down is toward 
the center of the earth; up, away from the center. We 
look equally down, toward the earth, when our Light- 
Car is over N. Pole —over S. Pole — over equator — 
over either tropic — or over any other point of the 
globe’s surface. 

land hemisphere, fig. L. — That side of 
globe which contains greatest mass of land. 

water hemisphere, fig. M. — Greatest mass 
of water. 

pacific hemisphere, fig. F. — Best general 
view of Pacific. 

Atlantic hemisphere, fig. H. — Complete 
view of Atlantic. 

We will now consider these figures more partic¬ 
ularly. 

(100.) Western —Eastern Hemispheres. — 

Let us suppose ourselves in our Light-Car, sailing 
through free space, and sufficiently near the earth to 
distinguish oceans, continents, etc.; with power to go 
where we like — to stop and remain stationary when we 


NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS. 


53 


like — to pass above, around, below the earth, in every 
direction, and to view it on all sides. We move to 
that point of space where we behold the earth, as in 
fig. E (PI. I). It presents the western hemisphere. 
Now we move to another side of the globe (G), exactly 
opposite Western Hemisphere. There, we view eastern 
hemisphere. These two hemispheres, together, show 
every part of the earth’s surface. 

(101.) Four Continents. — There are four con¬ 
tinents. In W. Hemisphere (E), the immense broken 
fragment, extending nearly from N. Pole to S. Pole, 
is called America, Western Continent or New World. 
In E. Hemisphere (G), the principal landmass is the 
Eastern Continent or Old World. The smaller por¬ 
tion of land, S. E. of E. Continent, is Australia, ge¬ 
nerally numbered among continents, sometimes called 
an island. The unexplored land and ice around S. Pole 
(K), although little known, is usually termed Ant¬ 
arctic Continent. You will get a better idea of Ant¬ 
arctic Continent, by consulting the proper figures, E to 
M (also PI. II). Point out and name four con¬ 
tinents. What is a continent? (Read 121). 

(102.) Subdivisions of Continents. — The W. 

Continent (E) is subdivided into North America and 
South America; E. Continent (G) into Europe, Asia 
and Africa. 

(103.) Remark. 1. The Ural Mountains form part 
of the boundary between Europe and Asia. 

2. Geographers sometimes consider the world in 
eight divisions: — N. America — S. America —Europe 

— Asia — Africa — Australia — Antarctic Continent — 
Oceania — the latter subdivided (PI. I. G and F) 
into three island-groups: — Malaysia — Australasia 
{including Australia) —Polynesia. 

(104.) Oceania. — The great island-world (F and G) 

— consists of an immense number of islands extending 


54 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


north, east and south of Australia, between W. and 
E. Continents, over nearly whole Pacific. PI. II 
gives a view of Oceania, on a larger scale, with its 
three subdivisions. You may here also consult PI. IY. 


(105.) Six Oceans. — Seen from some points 
(PI. I. K. M), the planet we inhabit appears a vast 
water-globe. One universal ocean covers about two- 
thirds of its surface. Several large, broken landmasses, 
and a great number of islands, are distributed in it 
and divide it into different parts, bearing different 
names, as. if different oceans, namely: Pacific 
Ocean (fig. F) — Atlantic Ocean (fig. H) —Indian 
Ocean (fig. G) — Great Southern Ocean (fig. K) — 
Arctic Ocean (fig. L) — Antarctic Ocean (fig. K). 
— Point out Pacific on the planispheres. Now 
Atlantic. Indian Ocean. Great Southern 
Ocean. Arctic Ocean. Antarctic Ocean. How 
many oceans are there? Six. Name them. What 
is an ocean? (Read 15 3). 


(106.) Great Southern Ocean. — Point out 
Great Southern Ocean on figures of PI. I.— 
Some geographers have considered the Pacific, Atlantic 
and Indian Oceans to extend down to antarctic circle 
(F, G, H, K), and given the names, Southern Pacific, 
Southern Atlantic, etc. to those portions reaching below 
C. Horn (S. America), C. of Good Hope (Africa) and 
Australia. Others have made the Antarctic Ocean reach 
up to C. Horn, C. of Good Hope and the whole S. 
coast of Australia. Point out these? In 1845, the 
Geographical Society of London recommended that the 
southern limits of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian 
Oceans, should be the antarctic circle. (E, F, G, K, 
M). This recommendation has not been generally 
adopted. The navigator, in the neighborhood of the 
antarctic circle, does not enter upon his log-book (sea- 
journal) what ocean he is in, but only his latitude and 
longitude; for what ocean is he in, on the meridian of 
C. Horn and antarctic coast? In order more clearly 


NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS. 


55 


to define an area of the great universal ocean, distin¬ 
guished from the rest by a peculiarity, as striking as 
any marking the different zones, we shall, as some 
others have done, give the name of Great Southern 
Ocean to all that water which (K) lies N. of antarctic 
circle, and S. of a line drawn from C. Horn to C. of 
Good Hope, thence to S. point of Australia round to C. 
Horn again. In N. hem. (I), it is not possible for a 
ship to sail in one continued circle, due E. or W., around 
the earth; because its course would be interrupted by 
land, (except, possibly, a small, unexplored area encir¬ 
cling the N. Pole (I. L), supposed by many to be 
blocked up with eternal ice); but, in the Southern 
Ocean (K), a ship might sail, due E. or W., in a circle , 
around the globe, and come back, without interruption 
from land, to the point whence it started. 

Remark The words, “Great Southern Ocean”, 
on the planispheres of the earth (PI. I), have the 
appearance of being placed on the map negligently. 
The shape of the ocean, however, requires that they 
should be so inscribed, in order to show the very irreg¬ 
ular northern limits: for instance (fig. H), from C. 
Horn to C. of Good Hope. 

(107.) Continents and Oceans in one unbroken 
outline. — Take PI. IV. — a different kind of map, 
called Mercator's Projection (Mer-ca'-tor) — more par¬ 
ticularly explained hereafter. The advantage of it 
is that we have, at a glance, all the different continents 
and oceans — an unbroken view of Great Southern Ocean, 
bounded on the N. (106) by a line reaching from C. 
Horn to C. of Good Hope, thence, touching southern 
point of Australia, to C. Horn again — and the entire 
limits of Oceania. The antarctic circle, forcing the 
southern limit of the map, cuts off the Antarctic Ocean 
and part of the so called Antarctic Continent. 
How many objects have we indicated on the 
surface of the earth. Nineteen. How many con¬ 
tinents? Four. How many subdivisions of con- 


56 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


tinents? Five. What others? Oceania (with its three 
subdivisions) and six oceans. Name, and point out, 
on Plates I and IV, each of these 19 objects. 

(108.) Nineteen chief objects on the globe’s 
surface. — America , Western Continent or New 
World; — Eastern Continent or Old World; — Austra¬ 
lia; — Antarctic Continent; — North America; — South 
America; — Europe; — Asia; — Africa; — Oceania , 
divided, into Malaysia , Australasia (including Austra¬ 
lia ), Polynesia; — Pacific Ocean; — Atlantic Ocean; 

— Indian Ocean; — Southern Ocean; — Arctic Ocean; 

— Antarctic Ocean. 

(109.) Light-C ar in plane of equator, over 
W. Hemisphere. — Let us now, in our imaginary 
Light-Car (100), move around the earth, in every 
direction, as we have seen a swallow fly over and 
around a great church; only with this difference — 
our Light-Car will take us under , as well as over. 
We bring our Car to a stop, and remain stationary , 
opposite fig. E, over that point where equator is inter¬ 
sected by the middle meridian. What hemisphere? 
America , Western Continent or Neiv World. Name 
nineteen chief objects (108). Which objects 
are here visible, partly or wholly? — America , 
Western Continent or New World — N. America — S. 
America, , — small point of Asia — Atlantic — Pacific , 
with Oceania — Arctic and Antarctic Oceans. Which 
part of Oceania (F)? Polynesia and Australasia. 
Name those of the nineteen objects not visible 
in E. Where are they? Opposite side of the globe. 
In which figure? In fig. G. 

Remark. There are three oceans and one continent, 
namely:, Arctic, Antarctic and Southern Oceans, and 
Antarctic Continent: which extend around on both sides 
of the globe. We will not name those four objects in 
replying to the following questions of sect. 109. 

What lies E. of America? Atlantic . E. of 
Atlantic? Europe and, Africa. E. of Europe and 


NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS. 


57 


Africa? Asia and Indian Ocean . E. o f Asia and 
Indian Ocean? Pacific with Oceania , divided into 
Malaysia , Australasia, (including Australia), and 
Polynesia. E. of Pacific? America. Now go 
eastward around the earth, from America, and 
name those objects. Now go westward around 
the earth, from America, and name those same 
objects. Pacific with Oceania , etc. — Asia and In¬ 
dian Ocean — Europe — Africa. — Atlantic — America 
again. Repeat these backward and forward, a 
number of times. Point out circles on fig. E. 
Which of the nineteen objects lie within 
arctic circle? — Between arctic circle and 
tropic of Cancer? — Between two tropics? — 
Between tropic of Capricorn and antarctic 
circle? — Within antarctic circle? 

(110.) Light-C ar over Pacific Hemisphere 

(F).— Remember, we keep our Light-Car stationary , 
at the point which we chose, over fig. E. We remain 
stationary, but the earth slowly revolves, from W. to 
E.; so that, in a few hours, we should have, beneath 
us, fig. F, and we should be in the zenith of that point, 
where the equator intersects the middle meridian. 
What hemisphere? Why so called? Name again 
nineteen objects. Which are here visible, 
wholly or in part? America , W. Continent or New 
World — Eastern Continent or Old World—Australia 

— Antarctic Continent — N. America, — S. America — 
Asia — Oceania ., divided into Malaysia, Australasia 
(including Australia ), and Polynesia — Pacific — At¬ 
lantic (a very small part) — Southern Ocean and 
Antarctic Ocean. Name those of the nineteen 
objects not visible here. Point out circles. 
What objects lie within antarctic circle? — 
Between arctic circle and tropic of Cancer? 

— Within the tropics? — Between tropic of 
Capricorn and antarctic circle? — Within 
antarctic circle? 


58 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(111.) Light-Car over Eastern Hemisphere 

(G) . — Name nineteen objects. Name those 
visible, wholly or in part, in E. hemisphere. 
Eastern Continent or Old World — Australia — Ant¬ 
arctic Continent — Europe — Asia — Africa — Oceania , 
divided into Malaysia, Australasia {including Austra¬ 
lia), and Polynesia — Pacific — Atlantic — Indian 
Ocean — Great Southern Ocean — Arctic — Antarctic 
Oceans. Which of the nineteen objects are 
wholly or in part, on opposite side of G? 
Describe their positions with regard to the 
circles. 

(112.) Light-Car over Atlantic Hemisphere 

(H) . — Name nineteen objects. Name those 
visible in H. America , W. Continent or New World 

— E. Continent or Old World—Antarctic Continent — 
N. America — S. America — Europe — Asia — Africa 

— Pacific — Atlantic — Indian Ocean — Southern Ocean 

— Arctic — Antarctic Oceans. Describe positions 
of these objects with regard to the circles. 

(113.) Light- Car over Northern Hemisphere 

(fig. I). — If we remain in the position thus far 
held, over E — that is in plane of equator — the earth 
would continue to revolve beneath us, and the four 
hemispheres E, F, G, H, would follow each other in 
a perpetual succession; but we should never, at one 
glance, obtain a complete view, either of N. or S. hem¬ 
isphere. In order to do this, — (we will first seek 
to obtain a complete view of the N. hemisphere) — we 
must move our Light-Car to a quite different point of 
space, and greatly change our position with regard to 
the earth. We must quit plane of equator, where it 
appears a line, go N., and arrest our Car at a point, 
just one quarter way around the globe, where we shall 
have the arctic circle fully in front of us — and where 
the equator will, of course, appear a circle. We will 
direct our Light-Car, first, to a point in the zenith of 


NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS. 


59 


the N. Pole. Over which figure are we now? 
Fig. /. Where is the N. Star? In our zenith . 
The N. Pole? In our nadir. Look at B. Where 
must our Light-Car stand, in that figure, to 
afford the view of the earth in fig. I? It must stand 
at the point marked by the letter W, on the line be¬ 
tween N. Pole and N. Star. Name nineteen ob¬ 
jects, visible wholly or in part. Begin at 
America and go eastward. America — Atlantic — 
Europe — Africa — Asia — Indian Ocean — Pacific — 
Oceania. What parts of Oceania (F)? Parts of 
Malaysia and Polynesia. Name same objects 
going westward. Point out N. Pole — arctic 
circle — tropic of Cancer — equator—tropic of 
Capricorn. Where is tropic of Capricorn? On 
the other side of the globe, exactly opposite tropic of Cancer. 
Where is antarctic circle? What other objects 
lie on opposite side of globe (K)? What four 
objects in fig. I appear entirely? Which way does 
the earth revolve? From W. to E. In what di¬ 
rection would America move in fig. I? Toward 
top or bottom of the map? Toward top of the map 
and so around. Yes, it would go in a direction 
contrary to that in which the hands of a 
clock move. All the objects would move, in 
that direction, around the N. Pole, in circles, 
more or less large, according to their distance. 
If our Light-Car remain always stationary, 
in its present point, should we see any other 
hemisphere? No. Suppose we desire to examine 
the S. hem., as we have now examined the N. 
hem., where must we go? We must move just half 
way around the globe, to a point of space, on the other side 
of S. hem. — exactly corresponding to that which, in fig. I, we 
occupy over N. hemisphere. 

(114.) Light-Car over Southern Hemisphere 

(K). — Where is N. Star in K?— On opposite side 
of heavens, over N. Pole. Where should we stand, 


60 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


in B, in order to see the earth as in K? At point 
marked by letter Z. Point out S. Pole and circles. 
Name objects visible, wholly or in part. Begin 
with America and go east. — S. America — Atlantic 

— Africa — Indian Ocean — Pacific with Oceania. 
Which subdivisions of Oceania (F)? Australasia 
(including Australia)—parts of Malaysia and Polynesia. 

— Which way do objects move, when we stand 
opposite S. Pole? In the direction of the hands of a 
clock. 

(115.) The terms East and West, in free 
space. — We have seen (113) that, to an eye above 
N. hem. (Fig. I), objects, moving, with the earth’s 
daily rotation, eastward, move in a direction contrary 
to that of the hands of a clock; whereas, to an eye 
above S. hem. (Fig. K), objects move with the hands of 
a clock — that is, in the same direction. Yet, as the earth’s 
daily motion is always from West to East, the objects 
on it can never change their direction. This is to be 
explained as follows. There is no such thing as Past 
or West in infinite space. The terms are relative — 
invented by the inhabitants of the earth. That part of 
our horizon, in which the sun rises, we call the Past. 
He rises in the East, goes westward and sets in the 
West. If the sun’s apparent motion, then, be from P. 
to W., the earth’s real, contrary motion, on its axis, 
must be from W. to P. The earth’s annual rotation, 
around the sun, is said to be from W. to E., because 
it is in the same direction as its rotation on its axis. 
Again, we say, all the planets revolve, from W. to E., 
around the sun, because they all revolve around him 
in the same direction as the earth does. If we take 
our position opposite the S. Pole, the movements of the 
planets around the sun, would all be in the direction 
of the hands of a clock. They would revolve on their 
axes, in the same direction. When, therefore, we 
place ourselves opposite S. Pole, the term, from West 
to Past, means, in the same direction as that of the 


NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS. 61 


hands of a clock. Now look at K. How do the 
objects move, in that figure of the revolving 
earth? They move in the same direction as the hands 
of a clock. If we take, therefore, our position opposite 
S. Pole of the earth, we shall see our planet move 
from West to East, on its axis, and that will be in 
the same direction as the hands of a clock. If we 
recede far enough to obtain a full view of the entire 
solar system (PI. VIII. B), we should see them all 
pursuing their orbits, around the sun, in the direction 
of the hands of a clock, from West to East.* When, 
therefore, we speak of these motions, as being like that 
of the hands of a clock, we suppose ourselves on south 
side of solar system — that is, opposite S. Pole of earth, 
of sun and all the planets. If we go to opposite side 
of solar system (i. e. the north side), the motions, of 
course, would be contrary to that of the hands of a 
clock. To a person standing behind a transparent clock, 
the movement of the hands would be reversed. That 
is the reason why the direction of the revolving ob¬ 
jects, in fig. I, is the reverse of those in K. Which way 
does the earth move in C? Neither with nor 
contrary to the hands of a clock, as we are neither 
over N. nor S. hemisphere. But in D, where we 
look down upon the northern hemisphere, we see a 
direction contrary to that of the hands of a clock. 
Thus it depends on our point of view. And however 
these different movements may appear in contrary di¬ 
rections, they are in fact always in the same direction, 
— i. e. from West to East, and, to a person opposite 
S. Pole, would always appear the same as that of the 
hands of a clock. 


* In the diagram (PI. VIII. B), the planets are represented 
as moving contrary to the direction of the hands of a clock. 
Why? Because we are there supposed to be looking down on 
the northern hemispheres. You have only to turn the transpa¬ 
rent sheet toward a window; you will then be opposite their 
southern hemispheres. Then their motions will be in the direc¬ 
tion of the hands of a clock. 



62 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(116.) Light-Car over Land Hemisphere (L). 

— We now move to that point whence we behold, 
at a glance, the greatest mass of land. Name objects 
visible. Begin at America going eastward. 
Repeat them westward. Name objects not vis¬ 
ible (M.) Point out circles. Which way does 
the earth revolve in L? As the hands of a clock 
or in a contrary direction? In a contrary direction. 
Why? Because, viewed from the north side of the globe, 
instead of the south side. Where is the N. Star, in L? 
Behind our head, but not exactly over it. 

(117.) Light-Car over Water Hemisphere 

(M). — Name objects visible.— Objects not 
visible. Point out circles. Which way is the 
rotation, compared with the hands^of a clock. 
In the same direction. Why? Because we are opposite 
aS', hem. 

Remark. 1. London (L) lies almost exactly in the 
central point of the Land Hemisphere; while New Zea¬ 
land (M), a British possession, lies nearly in the cen¬ 
tral point of the Water Hemisphere. 

2. We know little or nothing of arctic and ant¬ 
arctic regions. They have resisted all man’s efforts to 
penetrate into their awful solitudes. It is not probable 
that any human being has ever visited those points of 
our globe’s surface called the poles. If the climate 
were not an insurmountable obstacle — if a mild per¬ 
petual summer could displace those frozen winters with 
their eternal ice-masses, we should be surprised to see 
how near, in reality, are Europe, Asia and N. America 
(L); how those coasts, now frequented only by the bear, 
the walruss, the seal, and legions of other animals and 
birds, would be crossed by lines of rapidly going 
steamers, or perhaps railroads — so that points of the 
globe, at present, for all purposes of intercommuni¬ 
cation, the most remote from each other, (as, for in¬ 
stance, Behring Str. and Scotland (L) — C. Horn and 


NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS. 


63 


Australia, etc. (K) — would be brought together, as 
Italy and England — or New York and Cuba. 

(118). Boundaries of continents and oceans. 

— Examine these boundaries on each of the proper 
figures, as well as on the one indicated. 

Bound Western Continent (E). — N. by Arctic 
Ocean; E. by Atlantic; S. by Atlantic, Great Southern 
Ocean and Pacific; W. by Pacific, Behring Str., Asia 
and Arctic Ocean. 

Eastern Continent (G). — N. by Arctic Ocean; 
E. by Behring Str., N. America, Pacific and Indian 
Oceans; S. by Pacific, Malaysia, Indian, Great Southern 
and Atlantic Oceans; W. by Atlantic and Arctic. 

Remark — the whole of E. Continent is not given 
on E. hemisphere; the N. E. part of Asia stretches over 
into W. hemisphere and nearly joins the N. W. part 
of N. America, from which it is separated by Behring 
Strait (E. F. I. L). 

Australia (G). — N. by Pacific and part of Oceania; 
E. by Pacific and part of Oceania; S. by Great South¬ 
ern Ocean; W. by Indian Ocean. 

Antarctic Continent (K). — N. E. and W. by Ant¬ 
arctic and Great Southern Oceans. It has properly 
speaking no southern boundaries — except S. Pole. 

Remark. The Antarctic Continent — has been sup¬ 
posed to form an irregular, six-sided figure, 3,000 miles 
long and 2,000 broad — about the size of United States. 
A volcano, Erebus, was in eruption when first dis¬ 
covered. Land seemed to rise 3,000 feet high in the 
interior. Perpendicular walls of ice on the coast 
sometimes reached an elevation of 200 feet. The figures, 
K. M (PI. I), give its form, as far as known, extend¬ 
ing into both hemispheres. Remark, however, there 
is no proof that it really is one solid body of land, 
or even large islands, or island-chains, or groups. A 
continuous coast has not been discovered; and no ex¬ 
ploration of the interior effected. Some of the land, 
reported by Wilkes (1839), has since been freely trav- 


64 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


ersed by Ross in the ships Erebus and Terror. The 
latest and best authorities rather incline to the opinion 
that it consists of a few islands, locked together by a 
frozen ocean; and, remember, the antarctic region is- 
colder than the corresponding space of N. Hemi¬ 
sphere (74). 

North America (E). — N. by Arctic Ocean; E. by 
Arctic and Atlantic; S. by Atlantic and Pacific; W. by 
Pacific, Behring Str., separating from Asia and Arctic 
Ocean. 

South America (E). — N. and E. by Atlantic; S. 
by Atlantic, Great Southern Ocean and Pacific; W. by 
Pacific and a small part of N. America. 

Europe (G). — N. by Atlantic and Arctic; E. by 
Asia; S. by Asia and Africa; W. by Atlantic and 
Arctic. 

Asia (G). — N. by Arctic; E. by Behring Str., 
separating from N. America, and by Pacific; S. by Pa¬ 
cific, Malaysia, Indian Ocean and Africa; W. by 
Africa, Europe and Antarctic. 

Africa (G. H). — N. by Atlantic, Europe and 
Asia; E. by Asia and Indian Ocean; S. by Indian, 
Great Southern and Atlantic Oceans; W. by Atlantic. 

Pacific (F). — N. by Asia, Behring Str. and 
America; E. by N. and S. America; S. by Great 
Southern Ocean and Australia; W. by Australia, part 
of Oceania, Indian Ocean and Asia. 

Atlantic (H). — N. by S. America, N. America, 
Arctic Ocean, Africa; E. by Europe and Africa; S. 
by Great Southern Ocean and S. America; W. by S. 
and N. America. 

Indian Ocean (G). — N. by Africa and Asia; E. 
by Pacific, Malaysia and Australasia; S. by Great 
Southern Ocean; W. by Africa and Asia. 

Great Southern Ocean (K). — It is bounded only 
on the North and South. N. by S. America, Atlantic, 
Africa, Indian Ocean, Australia and Pacific Ocean; S. 
by Antarctic Continent and Ocean. 

Arctic Ocean (I). — The water within arctic circle 


EARTH EEN FROM MOON. 


65 


is called Arctic Ocean. If the area of the whole circle 
be water, of which we have no proof, how is it bounded? 
N. by N. Pole, which is also its center; S. by N. 
America, Atlantic, Europe, Asia and Pacific, to which 
it is united by Behring Str. 

Antarctic Ocean (K). — We can only say it is 
bounded N. everywhere by Great Southern Ocean, and 
S. E. or W. by what is called Antarctic Continent. 


EARTH SEEN FROM MOON. 


(119.) 


Suppose we now make an imaginary journey 


to our nearest neighbor among the heavenly bodies — 
the moon; (although, probably, no human being could 
exist there). Distance, about 200,000 miles; — by rail¬ 
road (sec. 16), 8 months; — by Light-Car, one second. 
Fancy that, (an exception to all other mortals,) we 
have reached the moon. We anchor our Car upon some 
broken plateau, surrounded by shattered cliffs. It is 
one of her long nights (two of our weeks). The 
most prominent object, in the starry concave above our 
heads, is an immense, magnificent moon, 14 times larger 
than the full moon appears to us. That is our earth. 
Contrasted with the dark sky, its broad, illuminated 
disk offers a spectacle of unsurpassable interest and 
splendor. The continents and oceans are distinctly 
visible, (when the dense vapor which loads our gross 
atmosphere permits a clear view). The circles of snow 
and ice, under which the polar regions lie perpetually 
buried, shine with white, dazzling lustre. That around 
the S. Pole, is the larger (74). The landmasses are 
brighter than the oceans, because land reflects, and 
water absorbs, light. The continents are spotted, here 
and there, with clouds — mountain-ranges and shadows 
— vallies — seas — deserts — table-lands — glaciers — pri¬ 
meval forests, (those of N. America, Brazil, etc.). With 
our telescope, we fancy we descry faint indica¬ 
tions of the larger cities. While we gaze, one edge of 


5 


66 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


the luminous orb darkens; a black, circular shadow 
moves, for some hours, across its disk, and gradually 
passes off at the opposite edge. That is the shadow 
of the moon itself. The countries of the earth, over 
which it passes, have an eclipse of the sun. 

Western Hemisphere. — Our first view is (let us say) 
the W. hem. (fig. E).* .As we contemplate it, with wonder 
and delight, we become aware that the spots are not 
stationary. They move very slowly along the disk, from 
W. to E. The mighty globe is majestically revolving 
on its axis. The Atlantic gradually disappears. America 
moves toward the eastern edge. S. America speedily 
passes beyond the edge and vanishes (F). The Pacific 
(with Oceania) comes more and more into view: until,, 
in about six hours, we have before us the: 

Pacific Hemisphere. — Here (F) the globe has- 
turned one quarter around. We see part of W. hem- 
and part of E. hem. As the movement is scarcely 
perceptible, we have ample time to study the objects- 
This side of the earth — the Pacific hemisphere — affords 
an unbroken view of that vast waste of water in all 
its immensity, washing the coasts of Asia, Australia and 
America and reaching nearly from pole to pole, (for 
what we call the Great Southern Ocean, however prop¬ 
erly designated by a name of its own, is still a con¬ 
tinuation of Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans). While 
we gaze, the objects almost imperceptibly change their 
positions. N. America, in a few hours, and, after it, 
the principal part of the Pacific, advance beyond the 
eastern edge and disappear. Australia moves forward on 
its way around to the other side of the sphere (as in G)- 
That subdivision of Oceania, called Malaysia, in 12 hours, 
passes from western to eastern edge. Behring Str. 

* The figures E, F, G, H, with their circles and names, are 
of course, not intended to represent the supposed appearance of 
the earth, seen from the moon. But, as they are successive 
hemispheres brought into view by four periods of one revolution, 
the pupil will find it agreeable to use them during the following 
description. 



EARTH SEEN FROM MOON. 


67 

vanishes over north-eastern limit, till, in about six 
hours more, the retreating objects are succeeded by 
whole E. Continent and Indian Ocean.* They glide 
along with no greater celerity than the hour-hand of a 
clock. 

Eastern Hemisphere (G). — The stupendous globe has 
now made exactly a half revolution. It has turned 
\V. hem. completely away and brought E. hem. into 
full view. Slowly advancing, by and by, Asia and 
Australia follow the remnant of Pacific out of sight. 
Europe and Africa creep forward toward the eastern 
rim (as in H); till yet other portions of the globe’s 
surface come round and the: 

Atlantic Hemisphere (II) — now lies broadly be¬ 
fore ns. The entire Atlantic, with its vast, broken coasts, 
has glided into the center of the disk, revealing 
its immense form, somewhat in the shape of the letter S. 
N. and S. America slowly project forward their huge 
shattered angles, followed by the deeply indented gulfs 
of N. America; while the Pacific, which only an hour 
or two before, sank beneath the eastern edge, already 
re-appears on the western side. 

Remarks. Has the earth yet completed a revolution? 
No. For that, it requires about six hours more. It 
would then present to us the W. hemisphere again (as 
in E), and so, forever and ever, it accomplishes its 
wonderful revolutions (24); every place returning to a 
given meridian in precisely 23 hours, 56 minutes, 
4 seconds and nine one hundredths of a second — 
counting from that hundredth part of a second on which 
it left it. To the inhabitants of the moon, if there 
were any, it would perform the office of a clock far 
better than any machine made by human hand. 

We may, at our ease, contemplate this phenom¬ 
enon; for the glorious orb will never set , as the moon 


* The hemispheres F and G do not absolutely correspond 
to the period of six hours. The slight deviation was expedient 
in order to present unbroken outlines of the Pacific and Atlantic. 

5* 



68 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


does to us. It remains stationary in its place; because the 
moon itself revolves on its axis, only once a month, and, in 
such a way, as to keep the same side always turned toward 
the earth. But, although the stupendous orb never sets, 
a person, in the moon, would see it pass through the 
same monthly phases, as the moon does to us. Some¬ 
times, it would float in the heavens, a slender crescent; 
sometimes, a half moon; and sometimes, the mighty globe 
would turn broadly toward him its entire, illuminated hem¬ 
isphere. These varying phases are caused by the monthly 
revolution of the moon around the earth, which brings 
her sometimes between the earth and the sun (when 
she has the earth as a full moon) — sometimes, to a point, 
where the earth is between the sun and her (then she 
sees the earth, if at all, as a crescent). Remark, the 
earth, as a half moon (E to M), would not be all visible, as 
in the figures. The night-half would entirely disappear. 
Along the broken edge, would be, at times, distinguished 
the illuminated peaks of the Andes, Alps, etc. 


DEFINITIONS OF LAND DIVISIONS. 


(120.) Rem ark. — It is not expected that every younger 
student will here acquire a very exact idea of the" objects 
treated in the following definitions. They are now merely 
to be read over as a preparation; each pupil reading, aloud, 
one at a time. They will be hereafter again referred to, 
and read over more under standingly, at the proper stages of 
the lessons, and in connection with examples. 

(121.) Continent. — A term applied to the four largest 
landmasses of the earth. The word is often used by geograph¬ 
ical writers, when speaking of smaller land divisions; as, 
Continent of N. America; Continent of S. America; Conti¬ 
nent of Europe; Continent of Asia; Continent of Africa. 

(122.) Island. — A portion of land, smaller than a 
continent, entirely surrounded by water.] 


DEFINITIONS OF LAND DIVISIONS 


()9 


(ll3.) Island Chain. — Islands ranged in a line, 
whether straight or carved, are termed a chain. Such fre¬ 
quently connect a group with the mainland; or promonto¬ 
ries or peninsulas, with corresponding portions of the oppo¬ 
site coast. 


(124.) Peninsula. — Land almost surrounded by 
water. 


(125.) Key. — Sometimes Cay (from the Spanish cuyo, 
an islet), a ledge or lay of rocks near the surface of the 
water; or a chain of low sandy islands, reefs and sandbanks, 
sometimes of coral formation, very dangerous to the navi¬ 
gator. 


(126.) 

landmasses. 


Isthmus. — A narrow neck of land joining 


(127). Coast or shore. — That 
borders on the sea. 


part of land which 


(128.) Cape. — The extreme point of a portion of 
land stretching into the sea. 


(129.) Promontory. — A high point of land or rock 
projecting into the sea. It differs from a cape in denoting 
highland. Every promontory therefore is a cape, but every 
cape is not a promontory. 

(130.) Mountain. — A mass of earth or rock greatly 
elevated above the surrounding country. 


(131.) Mountain-range—ridge or chain- — A term ap¬ 
plied to a number of mountains, more or less united at the 
base, and having the same direction. 


(132.) Mountain-system. — This term has two mean¬ 
ings: first, a mass of mountains elevated at the same geolog¬ 
ical period; as, the Pacific Range, the Himalaya and 
Ural Mountains. The Alps and Apallachian (or Alleghany) 
Mountains, on the contrary, were thrown up, by different 
plutonic actions, at different periods. Secondly, the term 


70 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


“mountain-system” is applied in Geography to a number of 
mountain-chains grouped together. 

(133.) Peak. — An elevated mountain, isolated and of 
difficult access, the summit of which, seen from a distance, 
appears pointed. The term is also applied to the most 
elevated summits of a mountain-range. Crest is a general 
term for the highest part of a mountain. 


(134.) Volcano. — An opening in the surface of the 
earth, or in a mountain, which casts out fire, smoke, ashes, 
lava and other substances. 


(135.) Mountain-pass. — A place, between peaks, or 
higher elevations, where a mountain-chain is passable. 
Mountain-passes are usually at the angle formed by one 
part of a chain with another, and consequently, being at 
the head of valleys, are also at the headwaters of rivers. 
A pass w r as sometimes, by the ancients, called a gate , as it 
is now by the Spaniards. 


(136.) 


Valley, — A tract of land between hills or 


mountains. 

Remark. The term “valley” may be applied to any 
depression on the surface of the globe; the beds of the 
oceans are only great valleys. Vale is the diminutive of 
valley , properly applied to undulating depressions between 
hills. 


(137). Avalanche. — An immense mass of snow and 
ice precipitated, with thundering roar, from mountain-heights 
into the valleys, and sometimes bearing away, and burying, 
travellers, huts and entire villages. The term is also 
applied to masses of earth and rock in Alpine regions which 
break away and slip down. 


(138.) G1 acier. — Masses of ice, perpetually filling the 
more elevated parts of valleys in the higher mountain-chains, 
and always in slow motion. They sometimes descend con¬ 
siderably below the snowy mountain elevations and advance 
far into comparatively low, fertile valleys. The Alps, Nor¬ 
way, Iceland, Spitzbergen, the shores of the Antarctic Con¬ 
tinent, present extensive and remarkable examples. There 


DEFINITIONS OF LAND DIVISIONS. 


71 


are numerous snowy peaks in the Andes, but no glaciers, 
except in Patagonia, where are to be found the most 
tremendous and astonishing of the globe. In the Himalaya 
Mountains, they are but few and small; in the Alps, 400 have 
been counted, occupying a space of 14,000 sq. miles. These 
glaciers move slowly downward, “intruding themselves, like 
unwelcome guests, into the lower valleys.” They bear with 
them immense blocks of stone, with masses of gravel and 
mud. One of these transported blocks measured 100 feet 
long by 40 broad. Some of the Swiss glaciers are 400 yards 
in length; others 20 miles long by 3 broad. Sometimes the 
lifeless bodies of men, lost among the mountains, are dis¬ 
covered, years afterwards, perfectly preserved in the ice, 
at places remote from the spot where they perished. 

(139.) Watershed. — An elevated part or ridge of a 
country which divides the sources of its streams or rivers — 
one set, flowing down one of its slopes, the other, down 
the opposite one. 

(140.) Basin. — The entire tract of country drained 
by a river and its tributaries. The basin of a sea is the 
entire region watered by all the rivers which it receives. 

(141.) Table-land — High plain — Plateau. — A level, 

or nearly level, tract of land, at considerable height above 
the sea. A very large portion of the dry land of the globe 
consists of extensive, more or less elevated districts. 

(142.) Terrace. — This term is applied to plateaux, 
particularly when rising, in succession one above another, 
-as the terraces of Guiana. 

(143.) Plain — Lowland. — An extensive tract of land 
nearly flat, as the great northern plain of Europe and Asia, 
the plains of Lombardy (river Po) and Hungary (Danube). 
When at about the level of the sea, it is often called Low¬ 
land or Lowlands. Hence the term, as applied to Holland, 
Pays Bas, Lowlands or Netherlands. The plain of Hol¬ 
land is so low that the whole country, but for the dikes, 
would be overflowed by the sea. The plain, around the 
Caspian and Aral seas, sinks considerably below the level 
of the ocean, forming a vast cavity of 160,000 sq. miles 


72 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


The surface of the Caspian Sea itself lies 348 feet below 
the sea level. The low plains and steppes of Europe and 
western Asia are occasionally crossed by hills swelling in 
long waves or undulations. 


(144.) Prairie. — An extensive tract of land mostly 
level, destitute of trees, covered with tall, coarse grass: as, 
in the United States, W. of the Alleghany Mts., especially 
between the Ohio, Mississippi and the five great lakes. 


(145.) Savanna. — Indian name given to the large 
grassy plains in the southern part of N. America; as, the. 
Alachua Savanna (Florida). 


(146.) Llanos (lyanos). — Spanish word for great plains, 
on the Orinoco—on the La Plata, pampas. 

(147.) Karroos. — Extensive interior plains of southern 
Africa (Cape Colony), occupying most of the terraces be¬ 
tween the mountain-ranges. In the great karroo of Cape 
Colony, there is sometimes no rain for 2 or 3 years. The 
karroos, the hunting-grounds of the colonists, are wonder¬ 
fully crowded with various kinds of animals — the antilope, 
buffalo, elephant, river-horse, rhinoceros, wild ass, zebra, etc.. 


(148.) st eppes; — (from the Russian, step, barren ). 
Name given to vast level plains, destitute of trees, in 
south-eastern European and Asiatic Russia. They are marked 
by fearful extremities of cold and heat. Neither man 
nor animal can resist their storms, and, in the summer- 
drought, cattle perish by thousands. 

(149.) Silvas. — Portuguese name for the vast plains 
in the valley of the Amazon, densely covered with wood. 


(150.) Desert. — A vast and barren tract of land; as,, 
desert of Sahara, desert of Gobi or Shamo. 

(151.) Oasis. — A fertile spot in a desert, watered by 
springs, as the oasis of Tuat, 100 miles long and 15 wide. 
They are generally depressions below the surface. 


DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS. 


73 


(152.) Delta. — A term applied to low tracts of land 
sometimes found between the forks of a river (172), or at 
its mouth. These tracts are generally triangular, somewhat 
in the form of the Greek letter delta whence the name; 
as, the delta of the Nile, of the Ganges, of the Niger. 


DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS. 


(15o.) Ocean. — A vast body of salt water. 

(154.) Sargasso Sea. — This term is applied to a 
large tract of the Atlantic, extending nearly from West 
India Islands to desert of Sahara, between parallels 19° and 
30 0 N. lat., covered at intervals with vast quantities of a 
marine plant or gulf weed, called sargasso (fucus natans), 
torn from its roots, floating in the Gulf stream, and collected 
at this point, as in the whirl of a vast eddy. It is some¬ 
times called the fucus bank. The appearance is that of 
an immense inundated prairie. It was discovered by 
Columbus, and caused great alarm to his crew, who feared 
they would never escape from its entanglement. Similar 
tracts are found ,at south-east extremity of South America, 
in- the neighborhood of Falkland Is., in Southern Ocean, 
south of Indian Ocean, where it is called Long Kelp, and 
in the Pacific, North of Sandwich Is. Ships can scarcely 
make their way through these obstructions. In some cases, 
the stems are 800 feet long and nearly a foot in diameter. 
The weed is not always floating, but sometimes grows up 
from a submarine plateau. 

(155.) Sea. — As usually applied, is a body of saltwa¬ 
ter smaller than an ocean. 

(156.) Archipelago (ar-ke-peP-a-go). — A sea studded 
with groups of islands. The term was originally applied to 
the sea between Greece and Asia-Minor, i. e. Aegean Sea, 
and is derived from the Greek, archos, chief, and pelagos, 


74 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


sea, because that was the most important sea to the Greeks. 
A number of island groups is sometimes called an archipelago. 

(157.) Tide. — The alternate rising and falling of the 
waters of the ocean, with bays, rivers and waters connected 
therewith. The tide ebbs and flows twice in a little more 
than 24 hours. The flow or rising of the water is called 
the flood-tide , the descent of the water, the ebb-tide. The 
tide, higher than the common tide, which happens twice a 
month, namely at, or soon after, the new and full moon, is 
called the spring-tide. The tides which happen near the 
first and last quarters of the moon, when the difference 
between high and low water is less than at any period of 
the month, are called the neap-tides. They are the opposite 
to spring-tides. A tidal wave, following the moon in her 
apparent diurnal revolution, flows around the earth, 
arriving at any particular place about 50 minutes later 
every day. 

(158.) Current. — A constant and regular movement 
of portions of the ocean, rivers, etc., in certain directions. 
Those of the ocean may be regarded as rivers flowing 
through the ocean. 

(159.) Gulf. — A portion of water almost surrounded 
by land. 

(160.) Bay. — An indentation of the ocean, lying more 
open than a gulf. . 

(161.) Bight. — A bend between two points of land 
— synonymous with bay. 

( 1 62. ) Port — Haven — Harbor. — Any bay, cove, inlet or 
recess of the sea, or of a lake, or the mouth of a river 
which ships or vessels can enter, and where they can lie 
safe from injury by storms. Ports may be natural or arti¬ 
ficial; sometimes works of art, as piers and moles, are 
added to the natural shores of a place, to render a harbor 
more safe. The word port , is generally applied to spacious 
harbors much resorted to by ships, as the Port of New 
York or Boston; and not to small bays or coves which are 
entered occasionally, or in stress of weather only. Harbor 
includes all places of safety for shipping. 


DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS. 


75 


(163.) Bank. — An elevation or rising ground in the 
sea, called also flats, shoals, shelves or shallows. These 
may rise to the surface of the water or near to it. The 
word bank signifies, also, elevated ground at the bottom of 
the sea, when many fathoms below the surface; as, the 
bank of Newfoundland, which occupies an enormous area. 

(164.) Reef. — Numerous low rocks lying at, or near, 
the surface of the water. Those stony habitations, constructed 
for themselves in various parts of the tropical and adjacent 
warm seas, by the little coral animals, the zoophytes, are 
called coral reefs. The coral builds not only reefs, but 
regular islands. In the space of ocean, extending from the 
southern end of the Low Archipelago (Polynesia) to the 
northern end of Marshall Archipelago, every island, with 
one exception, is atoll-formed—atolls being circular groups 
of coral, with a very shallow salt-water lake within them. 
Some of these islands measure from fifty to eighty miles * 
in length and nearly twenty miles in breadth. 

(165.) Strait. — A narrow passage of water separating 
two pieces of land and connecting two bodies of water. A 
small strait, or the narrowest part of the strait, is some¬ 
times called a gut. The term strait is often erroneously 
used in the plural. 

(166.) Channel. — A passage connecting two seas or 
bodies of water, longer and broader than a strait. 

(167.) Sound. — Nearly the same as a strait, but 
distinguished from it in not, of necessity, having a double 
communication with the ocean; it is also in “soundings”, 
(that is, not much deeper than eighty fathoms.) 

(168. ) Belt. — A term applied to a narrow passage or 
strait in the Baltic. The Great Belt is the passage be¬ 
tween the I. of Seeland and that of Funen, at the en¬ 
trance of the Baltic. 

(169.) Lake. — A body of water surrounded by land, 
often differing from a sea only as being fresh water. 


76 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(170.) River. — A stream of fresh water flowing into 
another river, ocean, lake or other body of water; the 
spring or fountain, from which it first proceeds, is its source 
or head; the part, where it empties into another body of 
water, is its mouth; the cavity, in which a river flows, is 
called its channel; the bottom of the channel, its bed; the 
right and left sides, proceeding from the source to the 
mouth, are its right and left banks. The banks may be 
sloping or steep, rocky or fertile. Some rivers, particularly 
in Africa, lose themselves in sand. The salt tide-water of 
the oceans enters into many rivers for some distance from 
the mouth. 

(171.) Frith. — Firth (furth) — a narrow passage of 
the sea. The term is occasionally used to designate that 
part of a river opening into the sea, as the Frith of Forth. 
It is also sometimes called Estuary. 

(172.) Tributary — affluent — fork — branch. — An¬ 
other smaller stream which flows into a river; for instance, 
the Ohio has many large tributary streams and is itself 
tributary to the Mississippi. The part, at which they 
unite, is called the confluence; as, the confluence of the 
Tigris and Euphrates, or of the Ohio and Mississippi. The 
term fork is applied to the point where a river divides, or 
rather where two rivers meet and unite into one stream. 
Each branch is called a fork (152). 

(173.) Cataract. — A large body of water falling over 
a precipice. The greatest of the world is believed to be 
the Falls of Niagara. 

(174.) Cascade or waterfall. — A small body of wa¬ 
ter falling over a precipice. 

(17 5.) Rapid. — The part of a river where its bed is 
much inclined and the water rushes down rapidly. 


(17 u.) Loch. — In Scotland a lake or an arm of the 
sea is sometimes called a loch, in Ireland lough (lock). 


DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS. 


77 


(1/7.) Whirlpool — Eddy. — When, by the force of 
the tide or currents pressing the water diagonally against 
the shore, or between rocks or banks, a circular direction 
is given to it, or where a similar effect is produced by 
the meeting of two currents, or by deep holes causing 
a downward suction, this is termed an eddy; in the latter 
case, when very large and powerful, it is called a ■whirlpool. 
The Maelstrom or Malstrom, a whirlpool off the N. W. 
coast of Norway, near the Loffoden Isles, presents the 
appearance of a rapid current, whose dangerous character 
seems to have been exaggerated. At certain times, it may 
be traversed without danger. In the winter and in storms, 
it becomes violent and unnavigable. A celebrated point 
on Str. of Messina, between I. of Sicily and the main¬ 
land of Italy, where strong currents meet and make wild 
uproar, and where navigation was supposed dangerous, is 
called Seylla and Charybdis. The former is a precipitous 
rock, about 350 feet high; the latter is a strong eddy, now 
called Gallofaro. 

(178.) Wady. — (Wod'-y) an Arabian word—a river 
channel, dry, except in the rainy season; as, Wady Draa 
(southern boundary of Morocco). A small valley, a river, 
even a town, sometimes take this name. 

(179.) Inlet. — A recess in the shore of a sea, or of 
a lake, or large river, or between islands—a kind of bay. 

(180.) Remark. The terms, Sea, Gulf, Bay, Inlet, Bight, 
are very vaguely used. The Gulf of Mexico might be 
called a Bay; the Bay of Biscay, a Gulf. A gulf is said 
to differ from a bay only in extent. A bay is a “ large 
or small recess of the sea”; a gulf is only “a large extent 
of water”. But why do we say, Bay of Bengal and 
Arabian Sea; or Hudson Bay and Gulf of Mexico? Why 
not Hudson Gulf and Bay of Mexico? The student will 
often find the same piece of water called a gulf, by one 
geographer, and a bay, by another; as for instance, Mos¬ 
quito Bay. 


78 


PHY8ICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


WATER DIVISIONS. 

(PLATE II.) 


(181.) Remark to teacher. Make no demand upon the 
pupil’s memory. Read, slowly, from text book, three 
names at a time; the pupil, as he finds each place on the 
map, reads the name aloud. Thus certain that he is not 
expected to repeat from memory, his confidence becomes 
every moment greater; his task, as well as that of the 
teacher, more easy; and the lesson, as he constantly reads 
from, and contemplates the map, gradually engraves itself 
upon his mind and remains there permanently. No study 
is needed, except the recitation itself, which, for young 
persons, ought not to be extended over one short hour. 


(182.) (western continent.) — From Behring 
Str. to Str. of Belle Isle (bel-rle). — Behring Str., 
Kotzebue Sound (kot'se-bu), American Polar Sea (with 
mouth of Mackenzie River) — (Read these three). Str. 
Prince of Wales, North-West Passage, Boothia Gulf — 
(Read these three. — Noio read from Behring Str.). Kane’s 
supposed open sea, Kennedy Channel, Kane Sea — 
(Read these three. — Now read from Behring Str.). Smith 
Str., Baffin Bay, Davis Str. — (Read these three. — Now 
read from Behring Str.). Hudson Bay, Hudson Str., Str. 
of Belle Isle. — (How many have we named f mouths of rivers 
not counted. Read these 15 from Behring Str.) 

(183.) E. and S. coast of N. America, from Str. 
of Belle Isle to Mosquito Bay. — Str. of Belle 
Isle, G. of St. Lawrence (with mouth of R. St. Law¬ 
rence), B. of Fundy— (R. these 3.). Long Island Sound, 
Delaware B., Chesapeake B. (with mouth of Potomac 
River) — (R. these 3. — R. from Str. of Belle Isle). G. of 
Mexico, Campeachy B., Honduras B. — (R. these 3. — 
R. from Belle Isle). Mosquito B. — (How many from Str. 
of Belle Isle? R. these 10. — R. from Behring Str.) 


WATER DIVISIONS. 


79 


(184.) Whole coast of S. America, from Mos¬ 
quito B., round C. Horn, to B. of Panama. — 

Mosquito B., Car-ib-be' an Sea (with G. of Maracaybo 
mah-rah-kT'-bo). Darien B.— (R. these 4). Mouth of 
Amazon River, All Saints B., La Plata River or B. 
— (R. these 3. — R. from Mosquito B.). St. George G., 
Str. of Magellan (ma-jel'-lan), Guayaquil G. (gwi-ah-keel') 
(near equator ).— (R. these 3 .— R. from Mosquito B.). Bay 
of Panama'. — (How many from Mosquito B.t including mouths 
of Amazon and La Plata. R. these 11.- — R. from, Beh¬ 
ring Str.) 

(185.) W. Coast of N. America, from B. of 
Panama to Behring Str. — B. of Panama, Tehuan¬ 
tepec G. (Ta-wahn'-ta-pek), California G. (with mouth 
of Colorado River) — (R. these 3). B. of San Francisco, 
with Str. Golden Gate, Str. Juan de Fuca (Foo'-ka), 
Queen Charlotte Sound — (R. these 4. — R. from B. of 
Panama). Cook Inlet, Bristol B., Behring Sea or 
Sea of Kamtchatka (Kam-chat'-ka) — (R. these 3. — R.J'rom 
B. of Panama). Norton Sound and Behring Str. (How 
many? R. these 42. — R. from Behring Str.) 

(186.) (EASTERN CONTINENT.) — E. COast ofAfiia, 
from Behring Str. to Str. of Malacca. — Behring 
Str., Anadir G. (A-na-deer'), Behring Sea or Sea of 
Kamtchatka again. — (R. these 3). Sea of Okhotsk 
(O-kotks'), G. of Tartary (with mouth of Amoor River), 
Japan' Sea— (Read these 3. — Pi. from, Behring Str.). Str. 
of Corea (Ko-ree'-a), Yellow Sea (with mouth of the 
Yang-tse-kiang), China Sea — (R. these 3. — R. from Beh¬ 
ring Str.). Tonquin G. (Ton-keen'), Siam G., Str. of 
Malacca — ( R. these 3. How many? R. these 12. — R. wa¬ 
ter, divisions thus far learned.) 


(187.) S. coast of Asia, from Str. of Malacca 
to Red Sea. — Str. of Malacca, B. of Bengal (ben- 
gawl') (with mouth of Ganges R.), Palk’s Str. (pawks) — 
*{r. these 3). Arabian Sea (with mouth of Indus R.), G. 


80 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


of Oman (o-malm'), Str. of Ormus— (R. these 3. — R. from 
Malacca). Persian G. (with mouth of the united rivers, 
Tigris and Euphrates,— now out of Persian G. again by) 
Str. of Ormus, and G. of Oman — (R. these 3. — R. from 
Malacca). G. of Aden, Str. of Bab-el-man-deb, Red 
Sea — ( R. these 3. — R. from Malacca — now in Red Sea) G. 
of Akabah, G. of Suez — (R. these 2. How many ? R. 
these 12. — R. water divisions from Behring Str.) 

Remark. G. of Suez — 200 m. long, 30 m. broad.— 
It is supposed that the Israelites, pursued by Pharaoh and 
his hosts, crossed Red Sea (1491 B. C.), two miles from 
head of this gulf. Between Gulfs of Akabah and Suez, is 
mt. sinai, or jebel-moosa (f Mount of Moses ”)— one of 
a cluster of mountains — where the ten commandments were 
given. Opinions differ as to which peak was the original 
Sinai. 

(188.) Coast of Africa, around C. of Good 
Hope, from Red Sea to Str. of Gibraltar 

(je-brawk-ter).'—Red Sea, (out of Red Sea again by) Str. of 
Bab-el-man-deb and G. of Aden (ah'-den)— (R. these3). 
Mozambique Channel (mo-zam-beek') (with mouth of 
Zambezi), Delago'a B., (round C. of Good Hope), G. of 
Guinea (ghin'-nee) (with mouth of Niger) — (R. these 3. 
— R. from Red Sea and Str. of Bab-el-man-deb ).-—Bight of 
Biafra, Bight of Benin (ben-een'), Str. of Gibraltar — 
(R. these 3. — R. from Red Sea — R. all water divisions thus 
far learned.) 

(189.) Seven seas and lakes. — (Name seven seas 
and lakes almost in a line, E. and W., with Str. of Gibraltar.) 
Mediterranean Sea (with mouth of Nile), Black Sea 
(with mouths of Danube and Dnieper, nee'-pr), Sea of 
Azof (with mouth of Don), Caspian Sea (with mouths 
of Volga and Ural — R. these 4). Sea of Aral (with 
mouth of Sir-Daria or Jaxartes, also of Amoo or Oxus), 
Lake Balkash, Lake Baikal (bl'-kal). (R. these 3. How 
many? R. these 7. Go back again from L. Baikal to Medi¬ 
terranean. R. from Behring Str. to L. Baikal. R. back again 
Jrom L. Baikal to Str. of Gibraltar). 


WATER DIVISIONS. 


81 


(190.) Water clivisioiis oi Mediterianean anti 
Black Seas. (PI. II. fig. 5.) — Str. of Gibraltar, G. 
of Lions, G. of Genoa — (R. these 3). Str. of Bonifacio 
(bo-ni-fa'eho), Tyrrhenian or Tuscan Sea (tir-reen'ian), 
B. of Naples — (R. these 3. R. from Str. of Gibraltar). 
Str. of Messina (mes-see'-na) ( ancient Scylla and Charybdis ), 
Adriatic Sea (ad-re-at'-ic) or G. of Venice, Str. of 
Otran'to (narrowest part between Italy and Turkey) — (R. 
these 3.— R. from Str. of Gibraltar). G. of Ta'ranto 
(hollow of Italy's foot), Ionian Sea (T-o'-ne-an), G. .of 
Cor'inth or Lepan'to — (R. these 3 .— R. from. Str. of 
Gibraltar). Aegean Sea (e-jee'-an) or Grecian Archi¬ 
pelago (ar-ke-pel'a-go), G. of Salonica (sa-lo-nee'-ka), 
G. of Smyrna— (R. these 3. — R. from Str. of Gibraltar). 
Dardanelles or Hellespont, Sea of Marmora, Str. of 
Constantinople or Bosphorus — ( R. these 3. — R. from Str. 
of Gibraltar. For next 3, PI. III.fig. I.). Black Sea, Str. of 
Kertch or Yenikale (yen-e kah'-le), Sea of Azof— (R. these 
3. — R. from Str. of Gibraltar. Now back again to African 
coast.) G. of Sidra, G. of Cabes, G. of Aegina or 
Athens. (For fast , PI. VI. Ii. How many? R. these 
24. — R. all water divisions thus far learned.) 

Remark. Tyrrhenian or Tuscan Sea —that water which 
extends between coasts of Italy and Is. of Corsica, Sardinia 
and Sicily. — G. of Lions — not Lyons. 


(191.) Levant. — The E. coasts and waters of Med¬ 
iterranean are often called the Levant — an Italian term, 
meaning the “East”; more particularly applied to Turkey, 

Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Egypt, etc. 

* 

(192.) Scylla and Charybdis — the terror of ancient 
mariners. The Str. of Messina, about 6700 yards wide and 
20 miles long, is more than 100 fathoms deep. In the 
center no bottom has been found. Charybdis (kah-rib'dis) 
was a whirlpool or eddy on the coast of Sicily; and Scylla 
(sil'la), a rock on the coast of Italy, whose proximity 
rendered the navigation dangerous. In the course of ages 
the waters, aided by artificial means, have worn a wider 
channel, so that navigation is far less formidable. (177) 

6 


82 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(193.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring Str. 

— Along W. coast of Europe and N. coasts of Europe 
and Asia. (For this take PL II. and PI. IV.) Str. of 
Gibraltar, B. of Biscay, British Channel — IE. these 3). 
Str. of Dover, North or German Sea, with Zuyder-Zee 
(zl'der zee), Baltic Sea — (E. these 4. — E. from Str. of 
Gibraltar). White Sea, Spitzbergen or Barentz Sea 
(between Is. of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla), Kara' Sea 
with mouth of Yenisei (yen-e-say') — (E. these 3. — E. 
from Str. of Gibraltar). G. of Ob or Obi (o'-bee), Asiatic 
Polar Sea, Polynia — i. e., ice free sea. (E. these 3 .— 
E. from Sir. of Gibraltar. How many? E. these 13 .— 
E. water divisions thus far learned.) 

Eemark. North or German Sea, often incorrectly 
called German Ocean . — For Zuyder-Zee, PI. VI. B. 

(194.) Water divisions of Baltic. (PI. III. fig. 4.) 

— Skager Rack, Cattegat (kat'-te-gat), Sound — (E. these 
3). Belt, G. of Dantzic, G. of Riga (ree'-ga) — (E. these 3. 

— E. from Skager Eack). G. of Finland, G. of Both¬ 
nia: ( How many f E. these 8. — E. water divisions thus far 
learned.) 

(195.) Waters of Great Britain and Ireland. 

— PI. VI. B. — Murray Frith, Frith of Forth, Mouth 
of Humber — (E. these 3). The Wash, Mouth of Thames, 
Str. of Dover — (E. these 3. — E. from Murray Frith). 
English Channel, with Estuaries of Southampton and 
Portsmouth Bay, Bristol Channel, St. George’s Channel 

— (E. these 5. — E. from Murray Frith). Irish Sea, Frith 
of Clyde or Dumbarton, North Channel — (E. these 3. 

— E. from Murray Frith). The Minch. (How many? E. 
these 15. — E. all water divisions this far learned.) 

(196.) Water divisions of Oceania. — (PI. II.) — 
Java Sea with Str. of Sunda, Banda Sea, Torres Str. 

— (E. these 4). Carpentaria Gulf (kar-pen-ta'-re-a), More- 
ton B., Botany B. — (E. these 3. — E. from Java Sea). 


LAKES. 


83 


Bass Str., Great Australian Bight. (How many ? R. these 
9. — R. water divisions thus far learned.) 

(197.) Water divisions of Antarctic Continent. 

PI. II.— S. of Australia: Repulse B. — S. of S. America: 
George IY. Sea. How many ? R. these 2 .— R. all water 
divisions thus far learned. — The mouths of how many rivers 
have we given ? — Name those 24. — Mackenzie, St. Law¬ 
rence, Potomac, Mississippi, Amazon, La Plata, Colorado, 
Columbia, Amoor, Yang-tse-Kiang, Ganges, Indus, 
Tigris and Euphrates, Zambeze, Niger, Nile, Danube 
and Dnieper (Black Sea), Don (Sea of Azof), Volga 
(Caspian Sea), Sir-Daria or Jaxartes, Amoo or Oxus 
(Aral Sea), Yenisei. 


LAKES. 

(PLATE II.) 

(198.) (w. continent.) Remark a line of fresh water 

lakes, running in a S. E. direction, through N. America, 
from Arctic to Atlantic. One, called Great Salt Lake , lies apart, 
to the S. W. among Rocky Mts. We name these by fives. 

(199.) Lakes of N. America. — (E. of Rocky 
Mts). Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, Athaba'sca 
Lake, Lake Win'nepeg, Lake of the Woods— (R. these 5). 
L. Superior, L. Michigan (mish'e-gan), L. Huron, L. 
Erie, L. Ontario (on-ta're-o) (between two last—Falls of 
Niagara. — R. these 5. — R. from Great Bear L. Apart 
and W. of Rocky Mts., 4200 feet above the sea). Great 
Salt Lake. — (How many ? R. these 11.) 

Remark. Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, On¬ 
tario pour their surplus waters into Atlantic by the river 

ST. LAWRENCE- 

(200.) Lakes of Central America. — Nicaragua 
Lake. — (How many R. the 12.) 


6 


84 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(201.) Lakes of S. America. — Lake Titicaca 

(te-te-ka'-ka), (one of the most elevated of the world: 11,540 
feet above the sea. How many ? R. 13 lakes of W. 
Continent) 

(202.) (e. continent.) Lakes of Europe. — 

Remark. Of the twenty or thirty most prominent we here 
name only three, in N. Europe. Wener L. (Sweden), 
Lakes Ladoga and Onega (between Baltic and White Sea). 

(203.) Lakes of Asia. — Remark. Although we 
have previously (189) read several inland waters of Asia, 
we here take them again. Caspian Sea, Sea of Aral, L. 
Balkash (R. these 3). L. Baikal, L. Ten'gri-Nor [the 
latter among Himalaya Alts., highest in the world, 12,500 
feet. How many l R. these 8. — R. lakes of Europe — 
of Asia — the whole already learned.) 

(204.) Lakes of Africa. — L. Melrhir, L. Tsad, 
L. Tsana or Dernbea — (R. these 3). L. Albert-Nyanza, 
L. Victoria-Nyauza, or Ukere'we, L. Tanganyika — 
(R. these 3. R. from L. Melrhir). L. Nyassi, L. Ngami 
(n'ga'-mee). — (How many, including Caspian and Aral Sens 1 
R. these 16.) 

Remark. The words Nyassi and Nyanza mean “lake”, 
in the aboriginal dialect. L. Melrhir is salt and below the 
sea-level. It is also called Melgig. 

(205.) Lakes of Australia. — Lake Eyre (air), 
(a salt-lake. — How many ? R. these 17. — R. lakes of W. 
and E. Continents. — R. water divisions of the world.') 

(206.) Questions. — Define word Strait? (165) (The 
teacher will cause pupil to repeat definition; then, to give 
examples). Channel? (166)—Sound? (167) — Belt?(168) 

— Lake? (169)-Bight? (161) —Bay? (160)—Gulf? (159) 

— Archipelago? (156)—Sea? (155) — Estuary (171) — 
Inlet (179) —Frith? (171)—Eddy or Whirlpool? (177). 
At close, teacher read remark (180). 


ISLANDS. 


85 


ISLANDS. 

(PLATE II.) 

(207.) (W. CONTIN ent). - Arctic Archipelago, from 
Behring Str. toStr. ofBellelsle. — BaringI.,Victoria 
I., King William I. (R. these 3). Parry Is. with Mel¬ 
ville I., North llevon (R. these 3. — R. from, Baring 1). 
Cockburn I., Grinnell Land, Greenland — (JR. these 3. — 
R. from Baring I.). Iceland. (How many ? R. these 10.) 
Remark. Iceland. (PI. II; see also PI. I figs. I, H, L 

— also PI. IV), lying nearer Greenland than European coast, 
is, by many geographers, included among American polar 
islands, although its population and civilisation are 
European. 

(208.) From Str. of Belle Isle to Mosquito 
Bay. — Newfoundland, Archipelago of St. Lawrence, 
Long Island— (R. these 3). Bermuda or Somers Is.,* 
West Indian Is., to Mosquito B. (How many ? R. these 
5. — R. from Baring I.) 

(209.) From Mosquito Bay to B. of Panama. 

— Trinidad I., Falkland Is., Terra del Fue'go Is. 
(fwa'-go). (R. these 3). Antarctic Archipelago (consisting 
of South Georgia, Sandwich group, South Orkney, and 
South Shetland Is.), — (R.4. Then from Trinidad). Wellington 
Is., Chonos Is. (ko'-nos) (sometimes called Chonos group 
or Chonos Archipelago — R. these 2. — R. from Trinidad 
I). I. of Chiloe (chil-way ), I. of Juan Fernandez, 
Chincha Is. (cheen-cha'). (R. these 3. — R.from Trinidad I.) 
Seal or Lobos Is., Galapa'gos or Tortoise Is. (How 
manyl R. these 44. — R. all islands from Baring I) 

(210.) FromB. of Panama to Behring Str. or 
Island. — Revilla-Gigedo (ra-veel'ya hee-hay'-do), Van- 


* The scene of Shakspeare’s Tempest was laid in one of 
these islands. 



86 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


couver I., Queen Charlotte Is. — (R. these 3). Prince 
of Wales I., Sitka I., Kodiak I. (R. these 3. — R. from 
Remlla-Gigedo). Aleutian Archipelago (a-lu'she-an) or 
Fox Is., Baring I. again. (How many ? R. these 8 .— 
R. all islands of W. Continent.) 

Let us now return (PI. III. fig. 3.) to: 

(211.) West India Islands — about 60 in num¬ 
ber, belonging, (except Hayti, which is independent), 
to Spain, Gr. Britain, France, Denmark, Sweden, Ven¬ 
ezuela, Holland. 


(212.) W. India Islands divided into: Bahama 
Is. (bay-hay'-ma), Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, 
(an-teel') S. American Coast Is. — (R. these 4) 


(213.) Among Greater Antilles are: Cuba with Isle 
of Pines, Jamaica, Hayti (hay-tee) or San Domingo — 
(R. these 3). Porto Rico — (R. these 4. — R. from Ba¬ 
hama Is). 


(214.) Among Lesser Antilles are: Virgin Is., Santa 
Cruz, St. Bartholomew — (R. these 3). Guadaloupe (gaw- 
da-loop'), Martinique, Barbadoes (bar-bay'-dos) — (R. these 
3. — R. from Virgin Is.). British Trinidad. — (How many ? 
R. these 7 — R. from Bahama Is.) 

(215.) Among S. American Coast Is. are: Cura^oa 
(ku-ra-so'a). (R. from Bahama Is) 

(216.) West India Is. according to national¬ 
ities. — To Spain belong: Cuba, Isle of Pines, Porto 
Rico — (R. these 3). To Gr. Britain: Bahama Is., Ja¬ 
maica, Barba'does, Trinidad — (Read these 4, — R. from 
Cuba). To France belong: Guadaloupe, Martinique — (R. 
these 2. — R. from Cuba). To Denmark belong: Santa 
Cruz — (R. this. — R.from Cuba). To Sweden: St. Barthol¬ 
omew. To Venezuela: part of S. American coast Is. 


ISLANDS. 


87 


To Holland : Cura^oa, etc. (How many ? R. these 13 .— 
R. all West India Is .) 

(217.) dues tions on West India Is. — To 

whom do the West India Is. belong ? (211) — How are 
they divided1 (212) — Among Greater Antilles (an-teel') 
are — t (213). Among Lesser Antilles are — ? (214) In 
what division is I. of Curagoa ? (215). Name governments 
to which following Is. belong. Curagoaf Holland. — St. 
Bartholomew 1 Sweden. — Santa Cruz (kroos)? Denmark. 

— Guadeloupe and Martinique ? France. — Cuba ? Spain. 

— Jamaica (ja-may'ka)P Great Britain. — Porto Rico ? 
Spain. — Barbadoest Gr. Britain. — Isle of Pines? Spain. 

— Trinidad (trin-e-dad') P Gr. Britain. — (R. all from Ba¬ 
ring I.) 

(218.) (e. continent). - From Behring Str. to 

Str. of Malacca. — Koorile Is., Saghalin Is., Island 
Empire of Japan — (R. these 3). Empire of Japan con¬ 
sists principally of four large islands: Niphon, Yesso, 
Kioo-Sioo and Sikoke (see-kok'), (R. these 4. — R. from 
Behring Str.) Lew Chew Is., (Loo-choo) Formosa I., 
British I. of Hong-Kong— (R. these 3. — R. from Behr¬ 
ing Str.). Hainan I., Singapore. ( How many? — R. these 
12 from Behring Str.) 

(219.) From Str. of Malacca to Red Sea. — 

Andaman Is., Nicobar Is., I. of Ceylon (see'-lon)— 
(R. these 3). Maidive Is., Laccadive Is., I. of Socotra. 
(How many ? — R. these 6. — R. from Behring Str.) 

(220.) From Red Sea around Africa to Str. 
of Gibraltar. — Seychelles Is. (sa'-shell), Amirantels. 
(am-e-rant'), Comoro Is. Madagascar I. (a kingdom — 
R. these 4). — Mascarene Is. (mas-ka-ren') (consisting of 
Rodriguez, Mauritius or Isle de France, Reunion (formerly 
Bourbon). R. these 8). Kerg'uelen Land or I. of Desolation 

— (R.these 9from Red Sea). Tristan daCunha (da-koon'-ya), 
St. Helena (liel-ee'-na), Ascension — (R. these 12 from 
Red Sea). Annobon' I., St. Thomas, Fernando Po I. 


88 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


— (R. these 15 from Red Sea). Cape Verde Is., Cana'ry 
Is., Madeira Is. (ma-da'-ra)— (R. these 18 from Red Sea). 
Azores Is. (Hawk Is. in portuguese. How many f — R . 
these 19. — R. from Behring Str. to Str. of Gibraltar. 
Point out four last on PL IV.) 

Remark. The inhabitants of Madagascar I. are of 
various races; some with the black skin and woolly hair of 
the negro; some mulattoes; and some resembling the Ma¬ 
lays. The whole population is colored except about the 
one-twentieth part. “Their religion is a rude species of 
polytheistic idolatry, and the monarch is the high priest 
as well as the despotic ruler of his subjects. The prevail¬ 
ing language, called Malagasse, bears no resemblance to 
those of the opposite coast of Africa, but is very similar 
in construction and forms to the Tagala, the most perfect 
of Polynesian dialects. Christianity was introduced, for the 
first time, in 1818, and the Scriptures have since been 
translated into Malagasse. Under the late king, Radama, 
the missionaries were protected, civilization introduced, 
slave-trade abolished, and schools established; but since his 
death, a disastrous change has taken place. The profession 
of Christianity is prohibited under severe penalties, the 
missionaries expelled, and many of the converts massacred.* 

(221.) Mediterranean Is. — PI. II. fig. 5. Bal¬ 
earic Isles, (consisting of Iviga, Majorca, Minorca) — 
(R. these 3). Elba, Corsica, Sardinia — (R. these 3 .— 
R. from Balearic Isles. Now close to Naples), Ischia 
and Capri — (R. these. — R. from Balearic Isles). Lipari 
Is. (lee'-pa-re), Sicily, Malta— (R. these 3. — R. from 
Balearic Is). Ionian Isles and Grecian Archipelago — 
(R. these — R. from Balearic Is). Candia, Rhodes (rodz), 
Cyprus (sl-prus). (How many have we named, counting 
Balearic Is. as three f — R. these 16.) 

(222.) Baltic Sea Islands. — PI. III. fig. 4. 

Zealand, Rugen, Bornholm — (R. these 3). Oeland (Viand), 


* Manual of Modern Geograpf y by Rev. Alexander Mackay. 
Edinburg and London. — one of the best. 



ISLANDS. 


89 


Gothland (goth'-land), land of the Goths , Oesel (o'-sel).— 
(R. these 3. — JR. from Zealand). Dagoe (da-go-eh), 
Aland (ah-land). ( How many? — JR. these 8 .) 

(223.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring S tr. 

— PI. II. — British Channel Is. (224), Heligo¬ 
land, British Is. (i. e. Gr. Britain and Ireland) — (JR. 
these 3). Hebrides (heb'-rid-eez) or Western Is., Orkney 
Is., Shetland Is. — (JR. these 3. — JR. from British Channel 
Is.). Faroe Is. (Fak'-ro) (not to he confounded with Ferro 
I., the most south-west of Canary Is.) Lofoden Is. (Lof- 
fo'den), Iceland (again) — (JR. these 3. — R. from British 
Channel Is.). Jan Mayen I. (yan-mi'-en), Spitzbergen, 
Nova Zembla — (R. these 3. — JR. from British Channel 
Is.). New Siberia Is., Herald I. (here, Captain Kellet 
(1848), saw, in the distance, an unknown, unexplored 
coast, indicated on Plates II and IV. How many ?— 
R. these 14.) 

(224.) British Channel Is. — Pis. VI. B. 

Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney — (R. these 3). I. of Wight, 
I. of Man (Irish Sea. How many? — R. these 5. — R. 
all islands from Behring Str. to Behring Str., around W. 
and E. Continents.) 

(225.) Islands of Oceania. — Pis. II. and IV. 
(for subdivisions see PI. I. G. F. E). 

malaysia — Sumatra, Java, Borneo — (R. these 3). 
Celebes, (sel'-e-bes or beeze), Moluc'cas, Philippine (fil'- 
i-pin'). (How many? — R. these 6.) 

Remark : Malaysia is sometimes called, by various other 
names, as Malay , Indian , Asiatic, Eastern Archipelago. Many 
of these Is. present lofty volcanic peaks. 

Australasia - Australia, Tasmania (formerly Van 
Diemaris Land (van Dee-mens) Papua or New Guinea 
(pa-poo-a) — (R. these 3). Macquarie I. (mo&t southern 
of Oceania), New Zealand, New Caledonia. (How many ? 

— R. these 6. — R. 12 Is. of Malaysia and Australasia.) 


90 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Polynesia — Ladrones (lad-ronz'), Marshall Is., 
Sandwich or Hawaiian Is. (ha-wi'-ee-an) — (B. these 3). 
American Polynesian Is., Fejee Is., Friendly Is. — (B. 
these 3. — B. from Ladrones). Society Is. with Tahiti 
(ta-hee'-tee), Low or Dangerous Is., Pitcairn I. — (B. 
these 4. — B. from Ladrones). Marquesas. (B. from 
Ladrones. How many of Malaysia? of Australasia? of 
Polynesia ?— B. 23 Is. of Oceania — B. Is. of W. 
and E. Continents. — Bepeat lesson on Oceania — PI. IV). 


PENINSULAS. 

(PLATE II.) 


(226.) (w. continent.) - From Behring Str. to 

Str. of Belle Isle. — Boothia Felix P., Melville P., 
P. of Labrador. — (How many ? — B. these 3.) 

(227.) From Str. of Belle Isle to Mosquito 
Bay. — P. of Nova Scotia, P. of Florida, P. of Yuca¬ 
tan.— ( How many? B. these 3. — B. from Boothia Felix P.) 

(228.) From Mosquito B. to Behring Str. — 

P. of California, P. of Aliaska (al-yas'-ka).— ( How many ? 
B. these 2. — B. from Boothia Felix P.) 

(229.) (E. continent.) - From Behring Str. to 

Str. of Malacca. — P. of'Tchooktchees (cbook-cheez), 
P. of Kamtchatka, P. of Corea— (B. these 3). P. of 
Chin-India or Indo-China, P. of Cambodia and P. of 
Malacca (southern part of Indo-China. — How many ? B. 
these 6) 

(230.) From Str. of Malacca to Red Sea. — 

P. of Hindostan, P. of Arabia, P. of Sinai (up the Bed 
Sea. — How many? B. these 3.) 


CAPES. 


91 


(231.) From Red Sea (around C. Good Hope) 
into Mediterranean and Black Seas. — P. of 

Somauli (so-maw'-lee), Spanish P., P. of Italy— (R. these 
3). Grecian P. (including P. of Peloponnesus or Mo- 
rea PI. VI. B), P. of Asia Minor, P. of Crimea 
(krim-ee'a).— ( How many? R. these 7.— R. from P. of 
Tchooktchees.') 

(232.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring Str. 

— Spanish P., P. of Brittany, Danish P. or P. 
of Jutland — (R. these 3). P. of Scandinavia, P. of 
Taimoor (tl-moor').— (How many ? R. these 5. — R. from 
P. of Tchooktchees.) 

Remark. The Spanish P. is often, in English literature, 
called “ the peninsula”; and Brittany, generally, except in 
England, Bretagne. 

(233.) Peninsulas of Oceania. (Australia). — 
Arnhem P., York P. — (R. these 2). 

(234.) Peninsulas of Antarctic Continent. — 

Graham Land P. (opposite C. Horn. — R. peninsulas 
from Boothia Felix P.). 


CAPES. 

(PLATE II.) 


(235.) (w. continent.) - From Behring Str. to 

Str. of Belle Isle. — C. Prince of Wales, C. Lis¬ 
burn, Point Barrow or Cape North — (R. these 3). C. 
Bathurst, C. Constitution, C. Farewell — (R. these 3 .— 
R. from Behring Str.). C. Iieikianac (Iceland) ; C. Chid- 
ley, C. St. Louis. — (How many f R. these 9.) 

(236.) From Str. of Belle Isle to Mosquito 
Bay. — C. Race, C. Canso, C. Sable (Nova Scotia) — 
(R. these 3). C. Cod, Sandy Hook, C. Hatteras (R. 


92 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


these 3. — B. from Belle Isle). C. Sable (Florida), C. 
Catoche (ka-to'-che), C. Gracias-a-Dios (gra-se-as-a-dee'- 
oce )..— (How many? B. these 9. — B. from Behring Str.) 

(237.) From Mosquito B. to B. of Panama. — 

Point Gallinas (gal-yee'-nas), C. St. Roque (ro-ke), C. 
Frio (free'-o) -— (B. these 3). C. Delgado, C. Horn, C. 
Froward. (B. these 3. — B. from Mosquito B). C. 
Farina, C. Blanco. — ( How manyf B. these 8. — B. 
from Behring Str.') 

(238.) From B. of Panama to Behring Str. — 

C. Corrientes, C. St. Lucas, C. Mendocino (men-do- 
see-no). — (B. these 3). C. Romanzoff.— (. How many? B. 
these 4. — B. from Behring Str.) 

(239.) (e. continent) — From Behring Str. 

to Str. of Malacca. — East Cape, C. Lopatka, C. 
King (Japan) — (B. these 3). C. Cambodia, C. Romania 
(Malacca, near Singapore — B. these 5 from Behring Str.) 

(240.) From Str. of Malacca to Bed Sea. — 

C. Com'orin, C. or Ras-el-Had, and (up Bed Sea, at 
the S. extremity of P. of Sinai) C. or Ras Mohammed, 
C. Guardafui (gwar-da-fwee').— (How many? B. these 4. 
— B. from Behring Str.) 

(241.) From Red Sea to Str. of Gibraltar. — 

C. Amber and C. St. Mary (Madagascar I. and King¬ 
dom), C. Corrientes — (B. these 3). C. Agulhas (a-gool'- 
yas), C. of Good Hope, C. Coast Castle — (B. these 3 — 
B. from Bed Sea), C. Palmas, C. Mesurado (mes-oo- 
ra'-do), C. Roxo (ro'-sho) — (B. these 3 — B. from Bed 
Sea). C. Verde, C. Blanco, C. Spartel. — ( How many? 

B. these 12. — B. from Behring Str.) 

(242.) From Str. of Gibraltar around Medi¬ 
terranean Sea. — PI. II. fig. 5. — C. Gata (Spain), 

C. Palos, C. Teulada (Sardinia) (te-oo-la'-da) — (B. these 


CAPES. 


93 


3). C. Passaro (Sicily), C. Spartivento (Italy), C. Leuca 

— (R. these 3. — R. from Str. of Gibraltar). C. Matapan 
(Greece — a, promontory), C. Bon (Africa. — How many ? 
R. these 8. — R. capes of E. Continent thus far learned.) 

(243.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring Str. 

— PI. II. C. St. Vincent, C. Finisterre, C. St. Matthieu 
(math'll) — (R. these 4). C. Land’s End with Lizzard 
Point (England) (too near south of Land's End for PL 
II. — see PI. VII), C. Clear (Ireland), C. Wrath (Scot¬ 
land )— (R. these 4 — R. from Str. of Gibraltar). The 
Naze (Scandinavia), C. Platen and South Cape (Spitz- 
bergen I.) — (R. these 3 — R. from Str. of Gibraltar). 
North Cape (the northern most of Europe. — How many t 
R. these 11. — R. capes from Behring Str. to Behring Str. 
again.) 

(244.) Capes of Oceania. — (Australia and Tas¬ 
mania), C. York, C. Moreton, C. Wilson, South Cape, 
C. Chatam — (R. these 5). North Cape and East Cape 
(New Zealand — W. Hem . — How many? R. these 7.— 
R. from Behring Str.) 

(245.) Capes of Antarctic Continent. — C. 

Possession (S . of C. Horn), C. Ann (S. of Madagascar), 
C. Adare (a-dair) (S. of New Zealand. — How many? R. 
these 3. — R. capes thus far learned.) 

(246.) Remark to teacher. After completing capes, the 
teacher will ask some questions, like the following. The 
pupil, of course, where necessary, will answer from the 
map. What waters surround P. of Nova Scotia? — Italy? — 
Hindostan ? — Kamtchatka ? — Scandinavia ? — Yucatan ? — Den¬ 
mark ?— etc. What island is washed by Queen Charlotte 
Sound and Str. of Juan de Fuca? — by Str. of Magellan? — 
What pieces of land are separated by Str. of Gibraltar? — 
Str. of Ormus? — Bab-el-man-deb ? — Belle Isle? What lands 
form G. of St. Lawrence, etc. 


94 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


MOUNT AIN-CHAINS. 

(PLATE II.) 


(247.) Plate II is constructed to show, at a glance, 
five different elevations of the globe’s surface above the 
sea level. 

The green marks elevations — to 1000 English feet, 
including lowlands, undulating regions, hills, plains, etc. 

The light brown — from 1000 to 3000 feet. 

The next deeper brown — from 3000 to 10,000 feet. 

The black— from 10,000 to 29,000 feet. 

The white — perpetual snow. 


(248.) We divide mountains into three classes: — 
Mountains of W. Continent; — Mountains of E. Con¬ 
tinent ;— Island Mountains, including Australia and 
Antarctic Continent . 

One mighty chain, in length about 9000 miles, 
traverses W. Continent, nearly north and south. Another, 
in length about 10,000 miles, crosses E. Continent, 
nearly east and west. Each intersects its respective 
continent, something as the backbone does a fish. The 
culminating point of the New World is believed to 
be Mt. Aconcagua (Chili), 23,910 feet; that of the Old 
World, gowrishankar or mt. Everest (Nepaul near 
Hindostan), 29,002 f. 


(249.) (w. continent.) — Great Pacific Range. 

— A single immense chain stretching from C. Horn 
to Arctic Ocean, bears the general name of Great Pa¬ 
cific Range , but has received local appellations, in dif¬ 
ferent latitudes and countries. In S. America, Andes; 
in N. America, Volcanoes of Central America, Cor¬ 
dilleras of Mexico with Sierra Madre (se-er'-rah mah'- 
dray), Wahsatch Mts. (settlement of the Mormons). and 
Rocky Mts. (R. these 6). 


MOUNTAIN-CHAINS. 


95 


(250.) Four Eastern Side Ranges. — From 

whole Pacific Range, but separated by great valleys, and, 
in one instance, by the ocean, beginning at C. Horn, 
extend, on E., four subsidiary systems: — Mts. of Brazil 
(brah-zil'); — Mts. of Guiana (ghe-ah'-nah) with Sierra 
Parime (pa-ree-me); West India Island Mts.; — Alle¬ 
ghany or Appalachian Mts. — (R. these 5 — R. from 
Andes). 

(251.) Western Side Range. — A western par¬ 
allel chain or system of Rocky Mts., running, along 
Pacific coast of N. America, up to Mt. St. Elias, bears 
different names: — Sierra Nevada (nay-vah'-dah), Cas¬ 
cade Mts. and Coast Range. This western parallel 
system traverses California, Oregon, Washington Ter¬ 
ritory, British America, and a portion of Russian 
America. The name, Sea Alps, is, by German geog¬ 
raphers, sometimes applied to the Coast Range. — (R. 
these 3 — R. 14 from Andes). 

(252.) (eastern continent.) — Great Central 
Trunk of Asia and Europe — starts from Sea of 
Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow and China Seas, trav¬ 
erses southern Asia, overleaps Caspian, Black and 
Mediterranean Seas, strikes broadly across Southern 
and Central Europe, grazes N. coast of Africa, and 
seems to re-appear in Azores, Madeira, and Canary Is. 
Let us now follow its various principal names in Asia 
and Europe. 

(First in Asia). Himalaya Mts., Hindoo Koosh, 
Elbruz Range (on plateau of Persia, south of Caspian 
Sea)— (R. these 3). Caucasus (between Black and Cas¬ 
pian Seas), Taurus (on P. of Asia Minor), and, (strik¬ 
ing from Taurus, south, through Palestine or Holy 
Land, to Sinai Peninsula,) Syrian or Lebanon Mts. 

— (How many ? R. these 6.) 

(Now in Europe) — continuing great Central Trunk 

— Balkan Mts., Great Alpine System and Pyrenees. 

— (How many ? R. these 3 — R. from Himalaya Mts.) 


96 


PHYSICAL GEOGRPHY. 


(253.) Northern Side Ranges of Asia. — 

Grouped, on the N., around Himalaya Mts., and, in 
some degree, forming parts of them — Karakorum Mts. 
Kuenlun Mts., Thian-Shan or Celestial Mts., and 
Altai — (R, these 4). 

(254.) Southern Side Ranges of Asia. — Mts. 

of Chin-India or Indo-China and Ghauts (Hindostan) 

— (R. these 2 — R. from Karakorum Mts.) 

(255.) Northern Side Ranges of Europe. — 

Carpathian Mts., Mts. of Middle Germany; then, still 
farther north, three isolated systems — Ural Mts., Scan¬ 
dinavian Mts., and Mts. of British Isles — (R. these 5. 

— R. from Karakorum Mts.) 

(256.) Southern Side Ranges of Europe. — 

Grecian Mts., Apeninnes, Sierra Nevada — (R. these 3 . 
How many altogether, in Asia, including central trunk and 
side-chains? R. these 12 .— How many altogether in 
Europe? R. these 11. — R. 13 mountain-chains (that is, 
Great Pacific Range and side-ranges) of W. Continent .— 
R. 23 chains of E. Continent). 

(257.) Mountains of Africa. — We now leave 
great central trunk of Asia and Europe, with its side 
branches, and take Africa, separately. In the N. W., 
Atlas, Plateau and Mts. of Abyssinia (Red Sea), 
Mts. of the Moon or Snow Mts. (sometimes called 
.Jebel-el-komri) — (R. these 3); Drakenherg, Cameroon 
Mts., Kong Mts., and Mts. of Air or Ashen (Desert 
of Sahara) — (R. these 4 — R. these 7 — R. 13 mountain- 
chains of W. Continent—30 mountain-chains of E. Con¬ 
tinent (that is 12 of Asia, 11 of Europe, 7 of Africa). 

Remark. The table-lands and mountains of E. Africa 
might be said to he also connected, by the elevated Arabian 
and Persian plateaux, with Great Central Trunk of Europe 
and Asia. 


MOUNTAIN CHAINS. 


97 


(258.) Review of Mountain Chains. — We will 

read over list of mountain ranges from Great Pacific 
Range. 

(W. CONTINENT.) GREAT PACIF IC RANGE. — Andes 

— Volcanoes of Central America—Cordilleras of 
Mexico — Sierra Madre — Wahsatch Mts. — Rocky Mts. 

(259.) FOUR EASTERN SIDE RANGES. — MtS. of 
Brazil — Mts. of Guiana ivith Sierra Parime — West 
India Island Mts. — Alleghany or Apallachian 
Range. 

(260.) WESTERN SIDE RANGE (of Rocky MtS. — 

with three different names) — Sierra Nevada—Cascade 
Mts. — Coast Range. 

(261.) (E. CONTINENT.) GREAT CENTRAL TRUNK. - 

(Asia) Himalaya —Hindoo KooshMts. —Elbruz Range 

— Caucasus — Taurus — Syrian or Lebanon Mts. 
(Europe) Balkan Mts. — Alpine System — Pyrenees. 

(262.) NORTHERN SIDE RANGES OF ASIA. — Ka- 
rakorum Mts. — Kuenlun Mts. — Thian-Shan or Ce¬ 
lestial Mts. — Altai. 

(263.) SOUTHERN SIDE RANGES OF ASIA. — MtS. 

of Chin-India or Indo- China — and Ghauts (Hin- 
dostan). 

(264.) NORTHERN SIDE RANGES OF EUROPE. - 
Carpathian Mts. — Mts. of Middle Germany —; (still 
farther N. — three isolated groups) Ural Mts. — Scan¬ 
dinavian Mts. — Mts. of British Isles. 


(265.) SOUTHERN SIDE RANGES OF EUROPE. 

Grecian Mts. —Apennines — Sierra Nevada. 


98 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(266.) mountains of africa. — Atlas — Pla¬ 
teau and Mts. of Abyssinia — Mts. of the Moon or 
SnowMts. (Jebel-el-Komri) — Drakenberg — Cameroon 
Mts. — Kong Mts. — Mts. of Air or Ashen. 


MOUNTAIN HEIGHTS OR PEAKS. 


(267.) We now select some chief separate heights 
of this great skeleton of mountain chains. The words, 
“no peak”, mean merely, no peak of sufficient importance 
for our list. The arabic numbers, giving the height, 
need not be read more than once. 

(western continent.) Great Pacific Range. 
First repeat the six different names of this 
range (258). For doubt as to Aconcagua (301). 

(s. America) — Andes Chain. — Chief peaks are: 
ACONCAGUA, 23,910 f., SAHAMA, 23,014 f., ILLIMANI 
(eel-yah-mah'-nee), 21,150 f. (JR. these 3). Chimborazo 
(chim-bo-rah'zo), 21,424 f., Cotopaxi (ko-to-pax'ee), 
18,875 f., tolima, 18,000 f. (JR. these 3 — JR. the six 
from Aconcagua). 

(n. America) — Volcanoes of Central America. 


— v. irasu, 11,200 f., V. AGUA, 15,000 f. (JR. these 2. 

— JR. 8 from Aconcagua). 

Cordilleras of Mexico with Sierra Madre — 
POPOC ATEPETLE, 17,780 f. , ORIZABA, 17,372 f. (JR. 
these 2 — JR. 10 from Aconcagua). 

Wahsatch Mts. — No peak. 

Rocky Mts. — pike’s peak, 11,497 f., fremont’s 
peak, 13,570 f., MT. MURCHISON, 15,790 f. (JR. these 3). 
MT. brown, 16,000 f., MT. hooker, 16,750 f. (highest 
measured point of Rocky Mts.). (JR. these 2. — R. 15 from 
Aconcagua). 


(268.) Four Eastern Side Ranges. — R. them 

(259). Mts. of Brazil — mt. itambe (e-tahm'bay), 6000 f. 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


99 


Mts. of Guiana with Sierra Parime. — mt. roraima 
(ro-ri'-mah), 7500 f., mt. maravaca, 10,500 f. (R.these 
2 — B. from Mt. Itainbe — B. from Aconcagua). 

West India Island Mts. — picoturquino (toor- 
kee'no), highest point of Sierra Maestra, in Cuba, 7670 f., 
blue mts., in Jamaica, 7770 f., mt. cibao, in Hayti, 
7200 f. (B. these 3 — B. t 6 from Mt. Itambe — B. 21 
from Aconcagua). 

Alleghany or Ayallachian Mts. — black mts. 
with black dome, in N. Carolina, 6707 f., white 
mts. with mt. w ashington, in New Hampshire, 
6288 f. (B. these 4 — B. 10 from Mt. Itambe —B. 25 
from Aconcagua). 

(269.) Western Side Range — (with three differ¬ 
ent names).— R. them. — Sierra Nevada , Cascade Mts. 
and Coast Range. — The peaks are: mt. shasta, 
(Calif:) 14,440 f., mt. hood, 14,361 f., mt. Olympus, 
8000 f. (B. these 3). mt. fairweather, 14,783 f., 
mt. st. elias, 14,970 f. (B. these 2 — B. 5 from Mt. 
Shasta — B. 30 from Aconcagua). 

(270.) (eastern continent.) — Great Central 
Trunk. — R. names of this Trunk (261). 

(asia.) Himalaya Mts. (him-a-lay-a), KUNCHIN¬ 
JINGA, 28,000 f., GOWRISHANKAR or MT. EVEREST, 
highest measured peak in the world, 29,000 f., dho- 
LAGIRI or DHAWALAGIRI (da-wol-a-gher'-ee), 26,826 f. 
(R. these 3). 

Hindoo Koosh. — Hindoo koh, 20,000 f. (B. 
from Kunchinjinga). 

Elbruz Range (on plateau of Persia, south of 
Caspian). — demavend, 18,464 f. (B. 5 from Kun¬ 
chinjinga). 

Caucasus. — mt. Elbruz, 18,570 f., mt. ararat, 
16,964 f. (R. 7 from Kunchinjinga). 

Taurus. — mt. argaeus, 13,100 f. (B. 8 from 
Kunchinjinga). 


7* 


100 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Syrian or Lebanon Mts. — mt. hermon, 9400 f., 
MT. SINAI, 9000 f. DHOR EL-CHOTIB, 10,061 f. (R. 
these 3. R. 11 from Kunchinjinga). 

Remark. 1. Mt. Elbruz , highest peak of Caucasus — 
not to be confounded with Elbruz Range , on plateau of 
Persia, south of Caspian (sometimes called Elburz'). 2. The 
snow-capped Mt. Hermon (Lebanon Range) — the modern 
Jebel-esh-Sheikh (jeb'el-esh-shaik) — one of the culminating 
points of Syria, commands a deeply interesting view. 

It. names of Great Central Trunk in: 
(Europe.) - Balkan Mts. — No peak. 

Great Alpine System. — mont blanc, 15,810 f. 
Pyrenees. — pic nethou, 11,168 f., mont perdu, 
10,904 f. (R. these 3 — R. 11 from Kunchinjinga). 

(271.) Northern Side Ranges of Asia. — R. 

them (262). 

Karakorum Mts. — dapsang peak, one of 
the highest of the globe, 28,278 f. 

Kuenlun Mts. — No peak. 

Thian Shan or Celestial Mts. — tengri-khan, 
20,000 f. 

Altai Mts. — PILLARS OF KATOONYA, 12,000 f., 
bieluca, 12,700 f. (R. these 4 from Karakorum, 
i. e. Dapsang Peak. — R. 18 from Kunchinjinga). 

(272.) Southern Side Ranges of Asia. — R. 

them (263). 

Mts. of Indo China. — No peak. 

Ghauts. — neilgherries (neel), 10,000 f. (R. 
from Karakorum). 

(273.) Northern Side Ranges of Europe. — 

R. them (264). 

Carpathian Mts. — No peak. 

Mts. of Middle Germany. — No peak. 

(Still farther North) Ural Mts. — konjakofski 
5397 f. 

Scandinavian Mts. — ymesfield, 8500 f. 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


101 




Mts. of British Isles. — mt. snowdon, (Wales), 
3590 f., ben nevis, (Scotland), 4368 f. (JR. these 23). 

(274.) Southern Side Ranges of Europe. — 

R. them (265). For Sec. 274. PL VI. B. 

Grecian Mts. — mt. Olympus, 9749 f. 

Apennines (Italy). — monte corno, 9520 f., 
v. Vesuvius (near Naples), 3948 f., and v. etna 
(Sicily), 10,875 f. (B. these 4 — B. 8 from Konjakofski). 

Sierra Nevada (Spain). — cerro mulhacen, 
11,663 f. (B. 9 from Konjakofski — B. 14 from Karakorum 
How many ? B. 28 from Kunchinjinga). 

(275.) Mountains of Africa. — R. them (266). 

Atlas. - MILTSIN PEAK, 11,400 f. 

Mts. of Abyssinia. — abba yared, 15,000 f. (JR. 
these 2). 

Mts. of the Moon or Snow Mts. (. Jebel-el-Komri .) 
— MT. KENIA (ke-ne'-ah), 21,000 f., mt. kilimandjaro 
20,000 f. This range also called Dschaga Mts. (B. 
these 2 — B. 4 from Miltsin Peak). 

Drakenberg. — compass mountain, 10,200 f. 

Cameroon Mts. — mt. albert, 13,119 f. (B. 
these 2. — 6 from Miltsin Peak). 

Kong Mts. — No peak. 

Mountains of Air or Asben. — peakof asben, 
3—5000 f. (B. 7 from Miltsin Peak — B. 16 from Car¬ 
pathian Mts.—from 21 Karakorum — How many‘l B. 35 
from Kunchinjinga). 

Remark. Opinions differ as to the location of Mountains 
of the Moon. Ptolemy, 1700 years ago, described them as 
covered with eternal snow which formed two lakes — the 
sources of the Nile; and, after arabian authorities, called them, 
also, by the now little used term, Jebel-el-Komri. But as, 
notwithstanding reports, we have not yet (April 1867) 
discovered the sources of the Nile, it is not possible to 
say what range Ptolemy meant. The name is sometimes 
applied to mountains west of Nyanza; but, by the best 
authorities, to those east of that lake — where we have 
accordingly placed them. The English traveller, Speke 


102 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(1858), represented them — but only from report and, it is 
believed, quite erroneously—as crossing Central Africa, N. 
of L. Tanganyika. 

(276.) Island Mountains, including Australia 
and Antarctic Continent. — 

Island Empire of Japan. — mt. fooseeyama 
(Niphon), 12,000 f. 

Sumatra. — dempo, 10,440 f., singallang, 
10,150 f., ophir, 13,000 f. (R. these 4). 

Java. — volcanoes of java — highest peak 
semeroe, (pr. Semeroo) 12,150 f. 

Borneo. — kinibaloo peak, 13,680 f. 

Sandwich Is. — (On Hawaii (ha-wi-ee) or Owhyhee, 
the largest and most southerly), v. maun a loa (mow'- 
nah-lo'ah), 13,760 f., v.mauna kea, 13,950 f., v. kil- 
auea (kil-o-e'-a) 3970 f. (R. these 9). 

New Zealand. — mt.egmont, 8270 f., Mt. Cook, 
13,200 f. 

Ceylon (see'-lon). — pedrotallagalla, 8280 f. 

Madagascar. — ankaiiatra, 10,000 f. (R. 
these 13). 

Cape Verde Is. — v. fogo, 9157 f. 

Canary Is. — peak teneriffe (pico de teyde), 
12,180 f. (R. these 15.) 

Azores. — peak of pico (pee-co), 7613 f. 

Iceland. — mt. hecla, 5110 f., mt. oeraefa-jo- 
kull, 6,409 f. (How many from Fooseeyamaf R. 
these 18.) 

(277.) Australia. — Mt.Sea View, 6000 f.; Australian 
Alps, Mt. Hotham, 7500 f. 

Antarctic Continent. — mt. erebus, active volcano, 
12,367 f., mt. terror, 10,884 f. The range has been 
called Ross mts.; near meridian of C. Horn: mt. 
william, 4500 f. (R. these 3 — R. 23 from Mt. 
Fooseeyama). 

Remark. Mt. Kilauea , notwithstanding its inferior 
height, is one of the most wonderful volcanoes in the world 
— not a lofty peak, but rather an upward sloping volcanic 


REMARKS ON MOUNTAINS. 


103 


plateau, 4000 feet above the sea, with a crater three miles 
in diameter and ten miles in circumference — a frightful, 
unfathomable abyss of ever red and boiling lava, so that 
it seems to offer a glimpse into the burning central regions 
of the globe. The surface of this fiery lake is between 
500 and 1000 feet below the upper edge of the crater and, 
seen in the night, is awful beyond description. The I. 
Hawaii itself is wholly volcanic. Its coasts are composed 
of lava or volcanic cinders, presenting perpendicular over¬ 
hanging cliff's, worn and broken by the furious billows of 
the sea and indented with deep caverns inhabited by in¬ 
numerable birds. 


(278.) Remarks on Mountains. — No map pre¬ 
sents mountains absolutely as they exist in nature, 
where we seldom find, as it is more convenient to give 
them in maps, a distinct range like a long wall cross¬ 
ing a plain. What we call a chain is, in fact, a broad 
mountain region, the whole surface of which has been 
npheaved, rising gradually to a culminating ridge. 
PI. II gives principally these culminating ridges. They 
form the watersheds, elevations many hundred miles 
broad. A glance at PI. II will show how the rivers 
flow off on either side from these watersheds. 
Observe what portion of the globe’s surface is occupied 
by plains and valleys. 


(279.) The Pacific Range — longest unbroken line of 
lofty summits on the globe—is, in its whole extent, of 
volcanic origin, full of extinct craters, intermittent vol¬ 
canoes and others in constant action. The Cordilleras of 
Central America contain more volcanoes, in frequent eruption, 
than any other country of equal area, except the antip¬ 
odal* Island of Java. The volcano Agua, 15,000 feet, 
is the highest of Central America. It receives its name 
from the fact that it emits torrents of hot water and 
stones, instead of fire. The Andes, forming, in some 


* Antip'odal:— pertaining to the antipodes, or those who 
have their feet directly opposite ours. 



104 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


degree, a double chain, after reaching their greatest 
elevation in Mt. Aconcagua, gradually decline in height, 
as they approach Str. of Magellan, where they are 
only from 4000 to 7500 feet. They include many 
magnificent and awful volcanoes. The Cotopaxi, 18,875 
feet, sometimes shoots flames 3000 feet above its sum¬ 
mit, with a roar which, it is said, can be heard at 
the distance of 550 miles. The region of the Andes 
is celebrated for the sublime beauty of its scenery and 
the abundance of mineral riches (gold, silver, copper, 
lead, iron, etc.). Terrible earthquakes frequently devas¬ 
tate towns and shake the whole adjacent continent. 
At Copiapo (Chili) there is an earthquake almost every 
day. The cluster of broken rocky islands, on west 
coast of Patagonian Peninsula, were probably rent 
from the mainland by convulsions of this nature.— 
Until recently, mt. elias was supposed the highest 
point of N. America, and its altitude erroneously given 
at 27,000 feet. It has lately been measured by the Rus¬ 
sians, in their coast survey, and found to be 14,970 feet. 
The highest peak in N. America, yet measured, is 
popocatepetle (Mexico), 17,780 feet. The general 
elevation of the other Rocky Mountain peaks is supposed 
to range between 10,000 and 16,000 feet. Some peaks 
may, however, be higher. Their height is far surpassed 
by the peaks of S. America. The Chimborazo, 21,424 
feet, was formerly believed the loftiest in the world. 
Subsequent measurements have corrected this error. 
There are at least six higher summits of the Andes; 
and the highest Andes peak, Aconcagua , 23,910, is 
overtopped by nineteen known peaks of the Himalaya; 
possibly by many others, mt. Washington, piled upon 
the top of Aconcagua, would about reach the height 
of Mt. Everest, 29,000. 

We have selected only a few Andes peaks. There 
are more than 50 stupendous eminences along the chain; 
and 70, although less high, in N. America; in all 
more than 120 (without side ranges). 


REMARKS ON MOUNTAINS. 


105 


(280.) The Scripture teaches that God created the 
heavens and the earth, and that the latter, before it 
became the abode of man, had passed through several 
successive transition periods. Science has attempted 
to examine into the mysteries of pre-adamic nature, 
and has discovered many striking facts; but it has 
made no progress whatever toward explaining the original 
cause of things. It appears a received idea that the 
sun, earth, other planets, moons, etc., composing the 
solar system, were once a mass of gaseous matter, at 
some time or other ignited, and throwing off fragments, 
which, gradually, took the shape of globes or planets. 
The central portion became the sun. The burning and 
perhaps liquid globe of the earth slowly cooled. The 
surface, or crust appears to have afterward formed one uni¬ 
versal ocean, above which, subsequently, arose continents 
and islands, and, at later successive periods, mountain 
ranges and peaks. We know little of the interior of 
our planet. Ten miles is about the greatest depth 
to which man has ever penetrated; that is, 1 — 400th 
(one four-hundredth) of the distance from the surface 
to the center. But enough is known to force upon us 
the opinion that the earth is, in fact, a globe of molten 
lava, or other matter so intensely heated as yet to 
consist of a burning fluid mass. Every where the tem¬ 
perature increases, in proportion as we go deeper, at 
the rate of about 1° Fahr. for every 55 feet from the 
surface. This heat, at a depth of 20 or 30 miles, would 
hold granite in a state of fusion, and dissolve, into a 
liquid form, the most refractory elements of which the 
globe is composed. The increase of heat, as we de¬ 
scend, is, generally, regular and uniform. 


(281.) Mountains are divided into two classes, nep- 
tunic and plutonic; the former produced by the agency 
of water; the latter thrown up, at different periods, by 
fiery eruptions, which burst through the neptunic 
formations, and gave, to their horizontal strata, different 
and, sometimes, even perpendicular positions. The 


106 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


mountains, later thrown up, are the more stupendous, 
which seems to indicate that planetary convulsions 
increase in intensity. Among the most recent upheavals 
are, the Andes with their gigantic peaks—Chimborazo, 
Aconcagua, etc. In Europe, the Scandinavian Mts. 
rank among the most ancient, consisting of primary 
rocks, with the oldest deposited strata lying unbroken 
above them. The highest alpine peaks, Mt. Blanc, etc., 
are the most modern. Science teaches that these 
changes of nature are not yet at an end; the pres¬ 
ent repose of the earth is only an interval; and there 
is some reason to believe that the next planetary crisis 
may be on a greater scale than its predecessors. The 
burning central regions are continually in activity as 
indicated by volcanoes, earthquakes, boiling springs, etc. 
The bottom of the ocean has volcanoes which some¬ 
times throw up mountain masses and new islands. 
There are at least 400 volcanoes upon the land, of 
which more than half are in a state of activity. By 
far the greater number are found on islands. The 
surface of some parts of the globe is always rising — 
for instance, Sweden and other regions around the 
Baltic. The waters of that sea are continually retiring 
at about the rate of an. inch a year. Lubec, once a 
sea-port, is now 12 miles from the shore. 


(282.) Volcanoes of Pacific. — A line of volcanic 
action extends from Aleutian Is., through Island king¬ 
dom of Japan', Philippine Is., Sumatra and Java; in 
latter island, it reaches its maximum, in about 50 vol¬ 
canoes. “One of these extinct volcanoes, generally 
called Guevo Upas, or Vale of Poison, half a mile round, 
is held in horror by the natives. Every living creature 
that enters it, drops down dead, and the soil is covered 
with carcasses of deer, birds, and even the bones of 
men, killed by the carbonic acid gas which lies at the 
bottom of the valley. In another crater, are found 
the half preserved relics of animals, tigers, birds, in¬ 
numerable insects, etc. killed by the sulphureous exha- 


RIVERS. 


107 


lations. In the regions of this volcanic line earthquakes 
are of frequent occurrence causing great devastations, 
sometimes destroying 23 villages at a time. This was 
the case in Jesso 1783. A volcano of Kioo-Sioo is 
the terror of the natives. An eruption (1792) destroyed 
50,000 people”. In Iceland have occurred the most 
destructive eruptions on record, their ashes reaching 
even the Orkney Islands. The Great Geyser throws out 
water sometimes 100 feet high.* 


RIVERS. 

(PLATE II.) 


(283.) Not only the surface of a country, but the 
size and course of rivers, are determined by mountains, 
whose flanks absorb the moisture of the atmosphere, 
forming immense everlasting accumulations of water and 
ice. Snow peaks and Alpine glaciers are always melt¬ 
ing and thus feeding rivers. Ice-masses have been 
measured, in Switzerland, more than 600 feet deep. 
These, in their turn, are renewed by the universal and 
perpetual exhalations from the waters of the globe. 
Nature has thus established a never ceasing circle of 
demand and supply. If there were no mountains, there 
would be few or no rivers. The sublimely beautiful 
mountain ranges, and the rivers which flow from them, 
thus obviously belong to a plan; for what reasonable 
mind can fail to see that the earth is a creation; that 
its Creator designed it as the abode of man — that 
mountains are framed as work-shops of rivers and orna¬ 
ments of the earth; and that rivers are intended to be 
features of beauty, sources of fertility, roads of commerce 
and channels of civilisation. Rivers also exercise important 


Lippencott’s valuable “Pronouncing Gazetteer”. 



108 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


influence over political events. They sometimes determ¬ 
ine the limits, and modify the destinies, of countries. 
The Danube, the Rhine, the Main, the Nile, the Mis¬ 
sissippi— what parts they have played in the drama of 
history! The early advances made by Europe out of 
barbarism and darkness, must be principally ascribed 
to the configuration of its coasts and the proximity, 
number and dimensions of its navigable rivers. The 
water-systems of the United States of America, and the 
facilities for inland navigation indicate them as the seat 
of an extensive, pre-eminent civilisation. No part of 
the globe is more favored with large rivers. 

(284.) (w. continent.) — Great rivers ofN.Amer- 
ica. — Four watersheds— 1. The first, leaning toward N., 
bears the Mackenzie, Saskatchewan or nelson and 
ST. Lawrence (with Ottawa) —into Arctic, Hudson Bay 
and G. of St. Lawrence. 2. From second (S. E. slopes 
of Alleghany), the Hudson and numerous others 
(PI. VII) flow into Atlantic. 3. The E. slopes of Rocky 
Mts., W. slopes of Alleghany, and N. table-land W. of 
great Lakes, form the third — the immense basin and 
valley along which the Mississippi, swollen by a 
hundred important branches, s\veeps across the vast N. 
American plain (452) to the G. of Mexico. Among 
branches are: the red r., Arkansas, Missouri, ohio. 
The Mississippi rises in the elevated table-lands of 
Minnesota State, W. of L. Superior, and enters G. of 
Mexico, 3000 miles from its source: forming, with the 
Missouri, the longest river of the globe—4350 miles.. 
The Rio grande del norte (boundary line between 
U. States and Mexico), pours, from Rocky Mts. into 
G. of Mexico. 4. From W. slopes of Rocky Mts., 
flow, into Pacific — the Colorado (G. of California) — 
SACRAMENTO —COLOMBIA —FRAZER — and KWICKPAK 
or YU CON (latter, into Norton Sound). 


RIVERS. 


109 


(285.) List of N. American Rivers. — Macken¬ 
zie - SASKATCHEWAN or NELSON —ST. LAWREN CE, with 
OTTAWA RIVER — (R.these 4). HUDSON—POTOMAC — (R. 
these 6). Mississippi, with its confluents, red river 

— ark an s as—Missouri—ohio — (R. these 5. — R. 11 from 
Mackenzie). Rio grande del norte—rio Colorado 

— (R. these 2. — R. 13 from Mackenzie) . Sacramento— 
Columbia — (R. these 2. — R. from Mackenzie), frazer 

kwickpak or YUCON. (R. these 2. How many 
from Mackenzie — R. these 17). 

(286.) Great Rivers of S. America. — The 

river-basins of S. America are easily distinguished. 
The magdalena flows into the Caribbean Sea; the 
Orinoco and essequebo into Atlantic. The great 
river of S. America, and of the world, the amazon or 
maranon, also empties into Atlantic. It is nearly 
as long as the Mississippi and Missouri together. Its 
mighty floods are swollen, on the N., by two affluents: 
the putumajo and Rio negro; and on the S. by seven: 
the ucuyale (oo-kl-a'-le), purus, Madeira—tabajos, 
xingu, and tocantins — with the araguay. Farther 
S., the PARANAHYBA, SAN FRANCISCO, PARANA (call¬ 
ed, at its mouth, la Plata) and its four confluents: 

URUGUAY — PAR A GUA Y —PILCOMA YO and SALADO — 

then the Colorado and Rio negro, all emptying 
into Atlantic. 

(287.) List of S. American Rivers. — magda¬ 
lena—Orinoco—essequebo — (R. these 3. — R.20 from 
Mackenzie). amazon or maranon (mah-rahn-yown') 

— two northern branches: putumajo—rio negro — 
(R. these 3. — R. 23 from Mackenzie). Seven southern con¬ 
fluents: UCAYALE, PURUS, MADEIRA, TABAJOS, XINGU, 

tocantins with araguay — (R. these 7. — Read Ama¬ 
zon with its 9 confluents — R. 30 from Mackenzie), para- 
nahyba and SAN francisco — (R. these 2. — R. 15 from 
Magdalena — R. 32from Mackenzie j. la plata (Parana) 


no 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


With SALADO, PILCOMAYO, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY (R. 

these 5 — R. from Magdalena — R. from Mackenzie). 
Colorado and rio negro (R. these 2 .— How many 
from Magdalena — R. these 22 rivers of S. America — How 
many from Mackenzie — R. 39 rivers of America.) 


(288.) Remark. The rivers of W. Continent are in 
general larger than those of E. Continent. The Mis¬ 
souri presents two natural curiosities. At about 400 
miles from its source it passes through the gates of 
the Rocky Mts., a ravine 150 yards wide and 6 miles 
long, between rocks about 1200 feet high, rising per¬ 
pendicularly from the water’s edge. A little more than 
1500 miles from its source, it descends 357 feet in 
16% miles, in a succession of falls, one of which is 
87 feet. These falls, next to Niagara, are considered 
the greatest in N. America. 

While the Mississippi, with the Missouri, is the 
longest, the Amazon is the largest river of the globe. 
It bears the immense floods of the Andes, from the 
interior of Peru, along the almost entire breadth of 
the continent — a distance of 4000 miles — to its two 
great mouths on the equator; emptying into the Atlantic 
the drainage of more than half S. America. So great 
are its volume and impetuosity, that it projects its 
turbid current into the sea more than 200 miles from 
the coast. 

Pororoca or bore. — The waters of the Atlantic 
occasion a singular phenomenon so called. Two days 
after, and two days before, every full moon, the ocean- 
tide, entering the river, is met by the descending river- 
flood sweeping out toward the sea. A struggle ensues. 
The river is sufficiently powerful to contest, for a 
time, the advance of its mighty opponent; but in a 
few minutes, the latter, the whole Atlantic behind it, 
accumulates a mass which overcomes all resistance — 
bears down the out rushing flood, rolls over it in a 
broad billow, 12 to 20 feet high, and advances up the 
river, with a roar audible at a distance of 7 miles. Behind 


RIVERS. 


Ill 


it, the pororoca leaves the river to continue quietly its 
way; but it is very dangerous to vessels in its onward 
course. Hence the Indian name of the river, Amassona, 
signifying w boat destroyer.” As the entering wave ad¬ 
vances, it almost entirely subsides in the deepest points 
of the river. These places are called Esperas (waiting 
places), because the smallest vessels lie there secure. 

( 289 .) (e. continent.) From Behring Str. to 

Str. of Malacca. — amoor, into Sea of Okhotsk — 

hoang-ho — YAN6-TSE-KIAN6, into Yellow Sea- 

(R. these 3). Mekong or cambodia, into Pacific — 
(How many ? — R. these 4 from Amoor). 

( 290 .) From Str. of Malacca to Red Sea. — 

IRRAWADDY—BRAHMAPOOTRA-GANGES-GODAVERY— 

into B. of Bengal — (R. these 4). — nerbudda - indus 

— with tributary sutlej into Arabian Sea— (R. these 
3 — R. from Amoor). Tigris—Euphrates into Persian 
Gulf — (R. these 9. — R. 13 from Behring St. i. e. Amoor R.). 

( 291 .) From Red Sea, quite around Africa, 
to Str. of Gibraltar. — nile — (with its branches 
white and blue nile) into Mediterranean— juba 
river into Indian Ocean — Zambezi (zam-bai'-zee) 
into Mozambique Channel — (R. these 5. — R. 18 from Beh¬ 
ring St.). ORANGE R.-COANZA R.-CONGO Or ZAIRE 
into Atlantic— (R. these 3. — R. from Nile), ogabai— 

GABOON — NIGER (JOLIBA Or QUORRA) with the 
newly discovered benue into G. of Guinea — (R. these 
4, .— R. from Nile). Gambia - Senegal-wadi draa 
into Atlantic — (R. these 3. — R. 15 from Nile). Interior: 
shary and other tributaries into L. Tsad — (How many ? 

— R. these 16 from Nile — R. 29 from Behring Str.). 

( 292 .) From Str. of Gibraltar to Danish Pen¬ 
insula. — (Spanish Peninsula): Guadalquivir— 
guadiana —tagus, into Atlantic. — (R. these 3). douro 


112 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


— min ho (meen-yo), into Atlantic — (France): garonne 
-gironde-loire, into B. of Biscay— (R. these 5. — 
R. 8from Guadalquivir), seine, into English Channel 

— (Gr. Britain): Thames, into German or North Sea 

— (R. these 2 .— R. 10 from Guadalquivir). (Northern 
Europe): Rhine-weser-elbe, into North Sea. (How 
many? — R. these 13 from Guadalquivir — R. 42 from Beh¬ 
ring Str). 

( 293 .) Rivers emptying into Baltic. — oder 

— VISTULA —NIEMEN — (R. these 3). DUNA — NEVA — 
tornea. (How many? — R. these 6 — R. 19from Guadal¬ 
quivir, adding rivers emptying into Baltic — R.48from Beh¬ 
ring Str). 

( 294 .) From North Cape to Behring Str. — 

dwina, into White Sea; petschora, into Arctic Ocean 
(R. these 2). obi, into G. of Obi; Irtish, into Obi 
River; Yenisei (with its tributary toongooska or 
angara) flowing through L. Baikal into Arctic. (R. 
these 4. — R. from Dwina). 

lena, kolyma, into Arctic. How many? R. these 
8 from Dwina — R. 27 from Guadalquivir — R. 56 from 
Behring Str). 

Remark. The Dwina and Petschora are in Europe 
—the other 6 in Asia. 

( 295 .) Rivers emptying into Mediterranean. 

— EBRO, RHONE, po. (How many? R. these 3). 

( 296 .) Into Black Sea. — DANUBE, PRUTH, 
DNIESTER (nees'-ter), Dnieper (nee'-per) — (R. these 4. 

— R. from Ebro). 

( 297 .) Into Sea of Azof. — don, — (How many 
from Ebro? R. these 8). 

( 298 .) Into Caspian Sea. — volga, ural. - 
(R. these 2. — How many from Ebro? — R. these 10). 


RIVERS. 


113 


\ 


299.) Into Sea of Aral. — sir-daria (ancient 


Jaxartes ), amoo-daria (ancient Oxus). — (R. these 2 .— 
How many from Ebro ? — R. these 12). 

(300.) Rivers of Australia. — goolwa or 
Murray, with its tributary the darling, into Southern 
Ocean. (Now R. rivers of the world.) 



Orthography — Pronunciation — Mountain 


Heights — present difficulties, as indeed, in many cases, 
do the names themselves. The natives of a country 
have often a name or pronunciation quite dissimilar 
from that adopted by other nations, who moreover 
differ among themselves. Authorities of the same nation 
disagree. To reconcile these conflicting stardards is simply 
impossible. The student must not be surprised to find 
broad differences, as he advances in geographical reading. 
In order to accustom him to them, we have occasionally, 
in different places, given a different spelling to the same 
word. The name is sometimes scarcely recognizable; as 
for instance, Mt. Kilimandjaro, in Kilima Ndscharo. Mount¬ 
ain heights are, also, often most loosely and incorrectly 
given. We have, as far as possible, followed Berghaus’ 
list of one hundred measured heights, just published at 
Gotha, in the Geographisches Jahrbuch for 1866, by Justus 
Perthes. Aconcagua is generally allowed to be the highest 
point of America. But measurements, particularly of 
Aconcagua, do not agree. One even gives the pre¬ 
eminence to Sahama. 



(302.) Questions. — What is a continent? (T21) — 

island? (122)—island-chain? (123)—peninsula? (124)—• 


isthmus? (126)—cape? (128)—promontory? (129) — 
mountain? (130) — mountain-range, or ridge, or chain? 
(131) — mountain-system? (132)—peak? (133) — volcano? 
(134)—ocean? (153) — river? (170) — source or head of a 
river? (170)—mouth of river? (170) — river-channel? 
(170) — bed of river? (170) — right bank — left bank of a 
river? (170)—tributary, affluent, branch of a river? (172) 
— fork of a river? (172, also 152) — wady? (178). 


8 



PART III. 

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



COUNTRIES. 

(PLATE III.) 

(303.) Political Divisions of N. America. — 

By W N. America” we mean, not only the continent, 
but all the adjoining insular landmasses. Farthest to 
the N., we have: 

DANISH AMERICA, consisting of GREENLAND and 
Iceland. Denmark owns also 3 West India Is.— 
santa cruz, st. thomas and san juan. (for Santa 
Cruz, see PI. III. fig. 3). 

unoccupied arctic lands, without any regular 
government because without population, except a few 
wandering Esquimaux tribes, cannot be called either 
a colony, or a political division. 

Russian America, now a territory ofU. S. of Am. 

British America consists not only of that im¬ 
mense colony N. of United States — nearly the size of 
the continent of Europe, but also, on Isthmus of Central 
America, of balize or British Honduras, and 
BRITISH WEST indies (216. PI. III. fig. 3); to which 
add the Bermudas or somers is. in Atlantic. 

french America. France, which once owned 
nearly all N. America, now possesses only those small 
islands, S. of Newfoundland, namely: st. pierre and 


COUNTRIES. 


115 


MIQUELON-called FRENCH FISHERY IS.; and FRENCH 

WEST INDIES (216. PI. ‘III. fig. 3). 

REP. OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

REP. OF MEXICO. We call this beautiful and 
unfortunate country a republic, although its government 
is subject to frequent changes, through one of the 
most remarkable of which it is now passing. 

FIVE INDEPENDENT REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL 
America (see them on a larger scale, PI. III. corner- 
map, fig. 2), namely: Guatemala -st. Salvador— 

HONDURAS-NICARAGUA—and COSTA RICA. 

mosquito coast (For the following five see 
PI. III. fig. 3). 

SPANISH AMERICA —CUBA and OTHER WEST IN¬ 
DIAN IS. 

REP. OF HAY TI. 

rep. of san domingo, the latter sometimes 
called Dominican republic. These are two inde¬ 
pendent negro republics, on an island bearing three differ¬ 
ent names: Hayti, San Domingo and Hispaniola. The 
entire population, 600,000, is black, except about 
28,000. 

SWEDISH WEST INDIES. 

DUTCH WEST INDIES. 


(304.) Remark. 1. Central America is not a political 
division, but a name vaguely given to a part of the Isthmus. 
The five republics, in 1823, formed a so-called Confederation, 
which broke up in 1839. 

2. Mosquito Coast , is an unsettled country occupied by 
Indians, whose Chief calls himself King of Mosquitia. 

3. Plate III. is a reproduction of PI. II. on the same 
scale. The water divisions, lakes, islands, peninsulas, capes, 
mountain-chains, etc., will be found, but more lightly drawn, 
and without their names. The pupil, having already, by a 
series of ascending steps, familiarized himself with them, 
comprehends, at a glance , the general configuration of a 
country, its rivers, mountains, etc., and takes in, by the eye , 
a variety of circumstances. The United States of America, 
for example: the Mississippi and its branches and valleys, 
the Colorado and Colombia Rivers, the Rocky Mts., Alle- 


116 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


ghanies, etc., present themselves, in their relative positions, 
far more clearly to his mind; than could be the case if 
the map were crowded with the usual confusion of names, 
or if the lists were to be studied from the book. A 
reference to PI. II. will assist his memory in case of need. 

We use the word country to indicate the whole terri¬ 
tory of a republic, kingdom or other independent state; as, 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, FRANCE, etc. In a few 
instances, for the sake of convenience, under this name, are 
classified divisions which are not independent countries; as, 
BRITISH AMERICA, FRENCH FISHERY IS., H1NDOSTAN 
Or BRITISH INDIA, etc. 

(305.) (w. continent.) — Countries of N. 

America, —Danish America unoccupied arctic 

LANDS-RUSSIAN AMERICA— (R. these 3). BRITISH 

AMERICA, with BALIZE OR BRITISH HONDURAS, etC.— 
FRENCH AMERICA —REP. OF UNITED STATES - (R. 

these 3. — R. from Danish America), rep. of Mexico 

FIVE INDEPENDENT REPUPBLICS OF CENTRAL AMERICA, 

namely: Guatemala—st. Salvador—Honduras — 

NICARAGUA — and COSTA RICA —MOSQUITO COAST — 

(i»\ these 6. — R. from Danish America). Spanish 

AMERICA —REP. OF HAYTI-REP. OF SAN DOMINGO 

(R. these 3. — R. from Danish Am erica) — s w e d i sh w e s t 
indies—dutch west indies. (How many ? R. these 19.) 

(306.) Countries of S. America. — rep. of 
Columbia, or Colombia, (formerly New Granada) — 
REP. of VENEZUELA (ven-ez-wee'la) — (R. these 2). 
colonies of guiana, namely: English guiana — 

DUTCH GUIANA Ol’ SURINAM — FRENCH GUIANA or 

cayenne—( i?. these 3. — R. from Colombia), empire 

OF BRAZIL—REP. OF PARAGUAY (pa-ra-gWP) - REP. OF 

Uruguay (oo-roo-gwi), formerly oriental repub¬ 
lic or BANDA oriental, — (R. these 3. — R. from 
Colombia), argentine confederation (ar'jen-teenl, 
or STATES OF LA PLATA, including BUENOS AYRES 
(bwa'-noce-lres) —Patagonia— rep. of chili — (i?. 
these 3. — R. from Colombia), rep. of Bolivia — rep. of 


COUNTRIES. 


117 


peru — rep. of Ecuador (i?. these 3 .— How many 
from Colombia ? — R. these 15. — is*. from Danish America). 

(3CW .) Remark. All independent organized countries of 
N. and S. America are republics, except Brazil. Patagonia, 
is not an organized government. It has no cities. The inhabit¬ 
ants are nearly savage and among the lowest of the earth. 
Attempts have been frequently made, particularly by Chili, 
to form settlements on the coasts and adjacent islands, but 
with little success. 

(308.) (E. CONTINENT.) — Countries of Europe 

— divided into two groups: 

Those on, or near, North Sea and Baltic — 

UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 

— UNITED KINGDOM OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY-EM¬ 

PIRE OF RUSSIA IN EUROPE—( R. these 3). GERMANY - 
KINGDOM OF BELGIUM-KINGDOM OF HOLLAND — 

( R. these 3. — R. from Gr. Britain). kingdom of 
Denmark. (How many ? R. these 7). 

Those on, or near, Mediterranean — kingdom of 

PORTUGAL- KINGDOM OF SPAIN - EMPIRE OF FRANCE. 

{R. these 3. — R. from Gr. Britain), rep. of Switzer¬ 
land - KINGDOM OF ITALY - PAPAL TERRITORY — 

(. R. these 3. — R.from Gr. Britain) .empire of Austria — 

ROUMANIA, or DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES-EMPIRE 

of turkey in Europe. ( R. these 3. — R. from Gr. 
Britain), kingdom of Greece. - (How many from 
Portugal ?— R. these 10. — How many from Gr. Britain ?' 
— R. these 17). 

andorra — san marino. Two very small,so-called 
independent republics, one — Rep. of Andorra — in 
Pyrenees, between France and Spain; the other — San 
Marino — in Italy. — (R. these 19 from Gr. Britain .) 

(309.) Remark. 1. Germany - until 1866, formed one 
league , called the Germanic Confederation. In that year, the 
growing struggle for supremacy, of the two principal states of 
the Confederation—Prussia and Austria — led to a war which 
resulted in the enlargement and aggrandizement of Prussia, 


118 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


and the complete exclusion of Austria from Germany. In 
Plates III and IV, we give merely the frontier lines of 
Germany without Austria. For Germany or the German 
States, as at present constructed, see PI. VI. B. 

2. Monaco — formerly an independent principality — 
was, in 1860, mediatized by France, and now forms part 
of her dominions. 

(310.) Countries of Asia — divided into six groups: 

On Mediterranean — turkey in asia. 

On Red Sea. — Arabian states, with kingdom 
of the wahabees and muscat- ( R. 4= from Turkey 
in Asia). 

On Indian Ocean with Persian Gulf. — Arabian states, 

WITH KINGDOM OF WAHABEES AND MUSCAT-PERSIA 

— BELOOCHISTAN —HINDOSTAN or BRITISH INDIA — THE 

indo-chinese states, consisting of BIRMAN empire 
—empire of anam-—empire of siam and Malay 
states- (R. these — R. from Turkey in Asia). 

On Pacific. — indo-chinese states, consisting of 

BIRMAN EMPIRE — EMPIRE OF ANAM (COCHINCHIN A) 

-— EMPIRE OF SIAM — MALAY STATES — CHINESE 

empire, consisting of china proper, eastern 
TOORKISTAN, MONGOLIA and MANTCHOORIA— (R. from 

Indo-Chinese States — R. from Arabian States — R. from 
Turkey in Asia), kingdom of corea (ko-ree'a) — 
island empire of japan. (How many from Indo-Chinese 
States ?— R. these. How many from Turkey in Asia ? — 
R. these). 

Arctic Ocean. — Russia in asia, or Siberia ( R . 
from Indo-Chinese States—from Arabian States—from 
Turkey in Asia). 

Interior States. — western tartary or toorkis- 
TAN — AFGHAN STATES — (R. these 2). CASHMERE — 
nepaul (ne-pawP),— bootan—( R. these 3 — R. from 
Turkey in Asia). Thibet — (How many in Asia ? R. 
these 19). 

(311.) Remark. Thibet and corea are often given 
as parts of the Chinese Empire. We have thought it more 


COUNTRIES. 


119 


proper to place them among independent states. Indeed 
the Chinese, like the Turkish Empire, seems to be falling 
to pieces. Thibet is one of the most elevated countries 
of the earth; its plains average from 10,000 to 11,000 feet 
above the sea. 


(312.) Countries of Africa. — We now consider 

the countries of Africa in five groups. 

On Mediterranean. — empire of morocco with 

TUAT — ALGERIA - TUNIS-TRIPOLI, with FEZZAN and 
barca— (R. these 7.) Egyptian states, including 
Egypt proper—nubia-kordofan, etc. — (R. these 3 
— R. 10 from Morocco). 


(313.) Remark. 1. F our of the above — viz. Morocco (with 
Tuat), Algeria , Tunis , Tripoli (with Barca and Fezzan ) are 
called barbary states — sometimes barbary; (from 
Berber — the name of a people who once inhabited this 
region). 2. Algeria has been a french colony since 1830. 
3. Tunis and Tripoli are dependencies of the Ottoman Porte, 
or, as the Turkish Government is officially called, the 
Sublime Porte (from the gate of the Sultan’s palace, where 
justice is administered). 4. Of the Egyptian States , only 
Egypt Proper is washed by the Mediterranean. 


(314.) OnRedSeaand G. of Aden. -Egyptian states 
including Egypt proper, nubia, kordofan, etc.— 
empire of habesh or abyssinia—somauli (so-maw'- 
lee) and galla country. (R. these 6). 

On Indian Ocean.— somauli and galla country- 
suaheli coast or Zanzibar — ( R. these 3 — R. from 
Morocco). ISLAND KINGDOM OF M AD AG ASCAR-PORT- 
UGUESE COLONIES OF SOFALA AND MOZAMBIQUE— 

(R. these 3 — R. from Somauli — R. from Morocco ). 

ZOOLOO COUNTRY — CAPE COLONY, with NATAL, and 

kaffraria (British Possessions). ( R. these 4 — R. from 
Somauli — R. from Morocco ). 

On Atlantic. — cape colony—land of the de- 
mara and namaqua, including the hottentot 
country. (R. these 3 — R. from Morocco), lower gui¬ 
nea, consisting of benguela - angola - Congo — 


120 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


loan go — biafra (R. these 5 .— R . from, Cape Colony — 

R. from Morocco), upper guinea, including calabar 

COAST —SLAVE COAST—GOLD COAST —IVORY COAST 

-grain coast. (R. these 5 — R. from Morocco). In 
Upper Guinea are the three kingdoms Benin (ben-een'), 
dahomey and ashantee. (.R . these 3. — how many of 
Upper Guinea ? R. these 8 — R. from Cape Colony. R. 
from Morocco). negro republic of Liberia— 
sierra leone (British settlement). (. R. these 2 — R. 
from Cape Colony—from Morocco), senegambia, com¬ 
prising MANDINGO COUNTRY, FOOLAH COUNTRY, JOLOF 

country, and some commercial posts of the English, 
French and Portuguese (i?. these I. R. from Cape Col¬ 
ony — R. from Morocco), great desert of Sahara, 
inhabited principally by Tooareks and Tibboos (R. this 

— R. from Cape Colony — R. from Morocco). 

Interior Countries. — soudan, or land of the 
blacks (called by former geographers, nigritia or 
Ethiopia), consisting of various independent mahomet- 
an and negro states, (i?. this — R. from Cape Colony). 

UNEXPLORED CENTRAL REGIONS OF A FRIC A (by Some 

geographers improperly called Ethiopia) ( and farther 

S. ), empires of the muropue and cazembe, con¬ 
sisting principally of the powerful Molua or Loonda 
tribes — (Still farther S. and adjoining Cape Colony) land 
of the bechuanas—orange rep.-transvaal rep. 

— (. R. these 3. — R. from Soudan — R. from Cape Colony 
—from Morocco—then countries of W. Continent—of E. 
Continent). 

(315.) Remark. 1. The name Hottentot is not known 
in Africa. The tribe so-called is included under the name 
of Namaqua. 

2. Sahara is partly occupied by Moors (Arabs). The 
Tibboos are pagans somewhat resembling the negro. The 
Tooareks are mahometans. 

3. Although Soudan is called Land of the Blacks, we 
must not think the blacks are confined to that land. 
The negro or black race are supposed to amount to 50 or 
60 millions. They are found throughout a great part of 


COUNTRIES. 


121 


southern Africa, and comprise many shades of color and 
physiognomical varieties. Pop. of Africa, 188 millions. 

4. The above political divisions of Africa give only a 
selection from innumerable tribes, kingdoms and countries, 
many imperfectly, some not at all known. 

5. The interior boundary lines are intended to aid the 
eye. It is not possible to draw them always accurately. 
In some cases they do not exist at all. 


(316.) Ethiopia — a name vaguely applied by ancient 
geographers, sometimes to all the southern parts of the 
known world; sometimes to India; sometimes to those 
regions of Asia and Africa whose inhabitants were of black 
or dark color; sometimes to that entire portion of Africa 
S. of the Atlas and Egypt. It belonged more particularly 
to that ancient kingdom, called Meroe (mer'-o-e) of northern 
Africa, with a capital of the same name, whose ruins are 
yet to be seen on the banks of the Nile. This people were 
negroes, and Herodotus remarks that this was the only 
country of antiquity where men of color made great prog¬ 
ress in civilisation. Their constitution, government, laws 
and religion were of a high order. The king was amenable 
to the law as the lowest of his subjects. Some writers 
even give to Meroe the honor of having been the parent 
of Egyptian civilisation. Meroe, the capital, was the great 
center of commerce between Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, 
northern Africa and the Indies. Its inhabitants founded 
Thebes. The kingdom appears to have been at the head 
of a number of other Ethiopian kingdoms. Ethiopia and 
Ethiopians are frequently mentioned in the Bible. “Ahas- 
uerus reigned from India to Ethiopia”. — Job, perhaps the 
most ancient book, says, “The topaz of Ethiopia shall not 
equal it”. — “Can the Ethiopian change his skin or the 
leopard his spots” ? This last passage seems to identify 
Ethiopia with the negro race. A passage of Ps. LXVIII 
appears to indicate that the negro people shall one day 
be converted to the God of the Bible. — “Ethiopia shall soon 
stretch out her hands unto God”. Another passage in Acts 
VIII, 26 — 39, concerning “a man of Ethiopia”, is re¬ 
garded by many as the first step toward the fulfilment of 
this prophecy. There is now no country, Ethiopia, except 
Abyssinia or Habesh, which is governed by a sovereign, 
calling himself Theodore 7, Emperor of Ethiopia. 


122 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


COLONIES. 

(PLATE III.) 


(317.) Colonies of Great Britain. — The 

foreign British Possessions are: 

(In America): The northern half of north amer- 
ican continent, generally called British America, with 
VANCOUVER I. — NEWFOUNDLAND, etc. BALIZE or 
BRITISH HONDURAS — BERMUDA or SOMERS IS.— (R. 

these.) British west indies — British guiana — 
falklands is. (R. these 3 — R. from British America). 

(In Europe): Heligoland - Gibraltar - malta 

— ( R. these 3 — R. from British America). 

(In Asia): aden, a strongly fortified sea-port in 
Arabia—B ritish india — ceylon — hong-kong i.— 
(R. these 4 — R. from British America). 

(In Africa): Gambia — sierra leone — gold 
coast possessions — (R. these 3). ascension i.-st. 

HELENA—CAPE COLONY, with NATAL aild BRITISH KAFF- 

RARIA (£. these 5 — R. from Gambia). Mauritius — 
amirante, and Seychelles. (How many from Gambiaf 
R. these 11 — R. from British America ). 

(In Oceania): Australia—Tasmania—new Zea¬ 
land-^. these 3). Auckland isles (S. of New Zea¬ 
land).— Norfolk i. (N. W. of New Zealand — How 
many in Oceania f R. these 5 — R. from British America ). 
Australia consists of six colonies: western 

AUSTRALIA —PRINCE ALBERT LAND —QUEEN’S LAND — 

(. R. these 3). —new south wales - victoria - south 
Australia — ( R. these 6 ) — to which may be added the 
colonies of Tasmania and new Zealand. How many? 
R. these 8 .— R. from British America). 

(318.) Colonies of Holland. — (In America): 
dutch west indies-guiana or Surinam ( R.tkese2 ). 


COLONIES. 


123 

(I n Asia): Nearly all Malaysia, including Su¬ 
matra- java-borneo-celebes, etc. — and a PART 
OF PAPUA or NEW guinea (i£. —• then from Dutch 
West Indies). 

(In Africa): settlements on the guinea coast 

{How many from Dutch W. Indies? — R. these 9 — R. from 
Colonies of Gr. Britain. 

(319.) Colonies of Denmark. — (In America): 

GREENLAND — ICELAND — DANISH WEST INDIES — (R. 
these 3). 

(In Europe): Faroe is. (How many? R. these 4 — 
R. all British and Dutch colonies). 

(320.) Colonies of Portugal. — (In Atlantic): 

azores-madeira-cape yerd is. (R. these 3). 

(In Africa): sofala and mozambique—angola— 
benguela, etc. (R. these 4 — R. from Azores.) 

(In Asia): goa, etc. — settlements in Malaysia 
or Malay archipelago — macao — (How many ? R. these 
10 — R. all colonies of Gr. Britain — Holland — Denmark 
and Portugal). 

(321.) Colonies of Spain. — (In America): 

SPANISH WEST INDIES. 

(In Atlantic): canary is. 

(In Mediterranean): Balearic is. (R. these 3). 

(In Africa): ceuta, (on Barbary Coast). 

(In Oceania): part of Philippine is.—part of 
ladrone is. (How many? R. these 6. R. all colonies of 
Gr. Britain — Holland — Denmark — Portugal — Spain). 

(322.) Colonies of France. — (In America): 

FRENCH FISHERY IS. —FRENCH WEST INDIES —FRENCH 

guiana or cayenne. (. R . these 3.) 

(In Europe): Corsica). 

(In Asia): Pondicherry (Coromandel Coast), etc. 
(In Africa): Algeria—Senegal, etc. — i. of 


124 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


bourbon, or reunion (Indian Ocean — R. these 5 .— 
R. from French Fishery Is.). 

(In Oceania): Tahiti {Society Is.) — Marquesas 
— new Caledonia, etc. (How many from French 
Fishery Is.? — R. these 12. — R. all colonies thus far learned). 


TOWNS. 

(PLATE IV.) 


(323.) Remark. Plates II and III have now made 
us familiar with the chief natural land and water divisions, 
and with the countries, of the globe. Plate IV, although 
Mercator’s projection, is a reproduction of Plates II and III, 
for the purpose of presenting an unconfused view of towns, 
with no other names than a few in the Arctic regions, 
required by a future lesson, and for which there was no 
room in PI. II. 

The outline selected is 
cable, to embrace the capital , 
port , and one or two others, interesting as centers of trade 
or manufacture, or on any other account. For instance, 
Hillah, site of ancient Babylon. With the view to aid the 
memory, the towns are given, in the text, not in the order 
of their importance, but in the order in which they lie; 
and with few remarks. The United States of America and 
Southern and Western Europe are given on a larger scale 
in Plates VI. VII. The words “no town” mean no town 
proper for our outline-list. 


intended, as far as practi- 
the great sea , lake or river- 


(324.) (w. continent.) — Towns of Danish 

America — godthaab ( Greenland ) — reikiavik (Ice¬ 
land) — Christianstadt — (Santa Cruz , West Indies 
— R. these 3). 


(325.) Uno ccupied Arctic Lands. — No town; 
only temporary snow-huts of wandering Esquimaux. 


TOWNS. 125 

(326.) The so -called Russian America. — 

NEW ARCHANGEL (on Sitka I. —R. from Godthaab). 

(327.) British America. — st. john—Halifax 

— Quebec (i?. these 3). Montreal - Ottawa — fort 
york — (R. these 3 — R. from St. John), fort garry 
(Red River Settlement) — new Westminster^ Frazer 
River) —Victoria (on Vancouver Is.) (R. these 3 — R. 
from St. John), balize ( Balize , or British Honduras) — 
KINGSTON (Jamaica) — Hamilton (Bermudas). (R. these 
3 — R. from St. John — then from Godthaab). 

(328 •) French America. — On French Fishery 

Is. no town.— st. pierre (Martinique, West Indies). 
(R. from Godthaab). 

(329.) United States of America. — (On At¬ 
lantic): PORTLAND —BOSTON —NEW YORK — (R, these 3). 

PHILADELPHIA-BALTIMORE — WASHINGTON- (R. these 

3 — R. from Portland)• Richmond — Wilmington — 
charleston (. R . these 3 — R. from Portland), savannah 
st. AUGUSTIN-KEY west (on the island — R. these 3 

— R. from Portland). (On G. of Mexico): key west 
-mobile —new Orleans ( R. these 3 — R. from Port¬ 
land). GALVESTON (gal'ves-ton) — Brownsville (R. these 
2 — R. from Portland). (On or near Pacific): san Fran¬ 
cisco — SACRAMENTO — s alem - (R„ these 3 — R. from 
Portland). Oregon city-olympia ( R . these 2 — R. 
from Portland). (On Mississippi R.): new orleans- 
baton ROUGE — VICKSBURG ( R. these 3 — R. from Port¬ 
land). Memphis—ST. LOUIS ( R. these 2 — R. 5. on Mis¬ 
sissippi — R. from Portland). (On Ohio R.): Louisville 

— Cincinnati — ( R. these 2 — R. from New Orleans — R. 

from Portland). (Lake Towns): milwaukee-chicago 
(L. Mich.) — DETROIT — (r. these 3). Cleveland — 
buffalo (L. Erie) (R. these 5 — R. from Portland). 
(Interior Towns): salt lake city—austin (R. 

these 2 — R. from Portland). 


126 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(330.) Mexico. — MATAMORAS- YERA CRUZ- 

Mexico—mazatlan ( R . these 4 — R. from Godthaab). 

(331.) Five Independent Republics of Cen¬ 
tral America (Pis. III. fig. 2). — Guatemala 
(Guatemala) — st. Salvador (St. Salvador) — (R. these 
2) comayuga — truxillo — omoa (in Honduras). 
The latter is said to be the hottest point in the New 
World, except perhaps French Cayenne. ( R . these 3 — 
R. from Guatemala). st. juan de Nicaragua, or 
greytown (Nicaragua )— san jose—punta arenas 
(Costa Rica). (R. these 3. — R. from Guatemala). 

(332.) Mosquito Coast. — bluefields. 

(333.) Spanish America: hay ana (Cuba) (R. 
these 2 — R. from Portland — R. from Godthaab). 

(334.) I. Hayti. — PORT AU PRINCE (Rep. of 
Hayti) -— san domingo (Rep. of San Domingo). (R. 
these 2 — R. from Godthaab). 

(335.) Swedish Am erica. — gustavia (St. 
Bartholomew). 

(336.) Dutch America. —williamstadt (Cu- 
ragoa). (R. these 2 — R. from Godthaab). 

(.337.) Colombia. — aspinwall - panama - Bo¬ 
gota. {r. these 3). 

(338.) Venezuela. — Caracas, with its port 

la GUayra — (p, these 2 — R. from Aspinwall). 

(339.) Colonies of Guiana. — Georgetown 
(English Guiana) — Paramaribo (Dutch Guiana) — 
cayenne (French Guiana). (R. these 3 — R. from 
Aspinwall). 


TOWNS. 


127 


(340.) Brazil. — PARA— MARANHAM — PERNAM¬ 
BUCO ( R. these 3). bahia, or st. Salvador —rio 
Janeiro — ouro preto (formerly Villa Franca). (R. 
these 3) JR. from Para — P. from Aspinwall). goyaz 
cujaba (R. these 2 — JR. from Para — R. from As¬ 
pinwall). 

(341.) Paraguay. — Asuncion or assumption 
— villa rica. (R. these 2 — R. from Para). 

(342.) Uruguay. — monte video. (R. from 
Asuncion — from Aspinwall). 

(343.) Argentine Confederation. — buenos 
ayres — rosario—corrientes — (R. these 3 — then 
from Aspinwall). 

(344.) Patagonia. — No town. 

(345.) Chili. — valdivia — Santiago — Valpa¬ 
raiso— copiapo. (R. these 4 — R. from Aspinwall). 

(346.) Bolivia. — cobya — chuquisaca—la 
paz. (i?. these 3. R. from Aspinwall). 

(347.) Peru. — lima, with its port callao — 
(i?. these 2 — R. from Aspinwall). 

(348.) Ecuador. — Guayaquil, quito. — ( R . 
these 2 — then from Aspinwall — then from Godthaab). 

(349.) (e. continent.) — Towns of Great 

Britain and Ireland. — (England) Bristol — 
London — Liverpool — (R. these 3). (Scotland) 
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee — (R. these 3 — R. from 
Bristol). (Ireland) cork — Dublin — Belfast. (R. 
these 3. How many from Bristol? R. these 9). 


128 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(350.) Sweden and Norway. — (Sweden) 

GOTHENBURG— STOCKHOLM — UPSALA. (R. these 3). 
(Norway) CHRISTIAN IA— BERGEN —DRONTHEIM — HAM- 

merfest. (How many from Gothenburg ? R. these 7. 
R. from Bristol ). 

(351.) Russia in Europe. — tornea—arch¬ 
angel — ST. PETERSBURG. (R. these 3.) REVAL — 
riga — Warsaw — (. R. these 3. R. from Tornea). kiev 
— Odessa —sebasto'ple (pronounced like Constan¬ 
tinople). ( R. these 3 — R. from Tornea). astrachan 
—kasan — nishnei-n ov gorod — ( R . these 3 — R. from 
Tornea). Moscow — (How many from Tornea ? R. these 
13. R. from Bristol). 


(352.) Germany. — Bremen — Hamburg — Han¬ 
over — ( R. these 3). Berlin — koenigsberg — Dres¬ 
den— ( R. these 3 — R. from Bremen), frankfort-on- 
the-main MUNICH - (How m any from Bremen ? R. 
these 8. R. from Bristol). 

Remark. The teacher will here read sec. 309. 
German towns given more at large hereafter. 


(353.) Belgium. — Brussels. 

(354.) Holland. — Amsterdam. 

(355). Denmark. — Copenhagen, on I. of See- 
land. (R. these 3. R. from Bristol). 


(356.) Portugal. — Lisbon, oporto (R. these 2 
— R. from Bristol). 

(357.) Spain. — MADRID — sevilla — Cadiz — 
(R. these 3). granada (R. these 4 — R. from Bristol). 


(358.) France. 
(R. these 3). Lyons 
from Bristol). 


- HAVRE—PARIS — BOURDEAUX 
MARSEILLES. — (. R . these 4 — R. 


TOWNS. 


129 


Switzerland. — berne. 

Kgd. of Italy. — FLORENCE — NAPLES 

— (R. these 3 .— R. from Bristol). 

* 

Papal Territory. — rome. 

Austria. — Vienna — pesth — Trieste. 
(R. these 4 .— R. from Bristol). 

(363.) Roumania, or Danubian Principalities. 

— BUCHAREST. 

(364.) Turkey in Europe. — Constantinople. 

(365.) Gr eece. — Athens. (R. these 3. — R. from 

Bristol). 

(366.) Turkey in Asia. — Smyrna—trebizond 

— Bagdad— (R . these 3). hillah — Basra — mokha 
(R. these 3 — then from Smyrna), mecca — jidda — 
Medina (R. these 3 — then from Smyrna). Jerusalem — 
jean D’ACRE — DAMASCUS — (R. these 3 — R. from 
Smyrna) — Beirut — aleppo (R. these 2 — R. frcmi 
Smyrna). 

Remark. The towns Mokha, Mecca, Jidda, and Medina 
are sometimes said to be in the territory of Arabia, some¬ 
times, of Egypt and sometimes, of Turkey in Asia. The 
eastern coast of the Red Sea is politically attached to 
Egypt, but, as the turkish supremacy is nominally recog¬ 
nized over this part of Arabia, which is occupied by 
turkish troops, we have considered those ancient arabian 
towns to be yet within the limits of Turkey in Asia. 

(367.) Arabian States, with kingdom of the 
Wahabees and Muscat. — er riad — muscat — 
aden. (R. these 3. — R. from Smyrna). 


(361.) 

(362.) 


(359.) 

(360.) 


9 


130 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(368.) Persia. — teheran—-Ispahan (R. these2. 
— then from Smyrna). 


(369.) Beloochistan. — kelat. (R. — then from 
Smyrna). 

(370.) Hindostan or British India. — 

LAHORE —DELHI (del'-lee) — LUCKNOW (R. these 3). 
BENARES (ben-aV-res) —CALCUTTA — RANGOON (R. these 

3. — R. from Lahore). Hyderabad'- madras' - 
Pondicherry (to France) (pon-de-sher'-ree). ( R. these 
3. — R. from Lahore), calicut — Mysore (mi-zore") — 
goa — (R. these 3. — R. from Lahore). Bombay — 
baro'da — currachee (R. these 3. — R. from Lahore — 
R. from Smyrna). 

(371.) Birman Empire. — ava. 

(372.) Empire of Anam (Cochin China). — 
hue. — saigon (si-gon')— the latter now capital of a 
little french colony 

(373.) Empire of Siam. — bankok. (R. these 4 
— R. from Smyrna). 


(374.) Malay States. — Malacca (British town). 
(375.) Chinese Empire. — maimatchin — kirin- 

OOLA — MOOKDEN (R. these 3). PEKING-NANKING — 

han-kow (R. these 3. — R. from Maimatchin). shanghai 
— foo-chow — Canton (R. these 3 — then from Maimat¬ 
chin — R. from Smyrna). 


(376.) Kingdom of Corea. — han-yang — 
king-ki-tao (R. these 2. — R. then from Smyrna). 

(377.) Island Empire of Japan. — hakodadi 
— jeddo —miako —nangasaki (R. these 4 — R. from 
Smyrna). 


TOWNS. 


131 


(378.) Russia in Asia or Siberia. — (On 

Arctic Ocean and within arctic circle): olensk — 
nishnei-kolymsk — (R. these 2). (On Pacific): pe- 

TROPAULOWSKI — OKHOTSK — NICOLAJEFSK (R. these 3 

— R. from Olensk). (Interior Towns): yakootsk — 
kiakhta — irkutzk (R. these 3 — R. from Olensk). 

KRASNOYARSK-BARNAUL — TOBOLSK (R. these 3 — R. 

from Olensk — R. from Smyrna). 

Remark. 1. Maimatchin and Kiakhta may be said to 
be one town, the former being on the Chinese, the latter 
on the Russian side. They are important trading stations 
between Russia and China. 2. Hankow or Han - Keoo 
(“mouth of commerce”) is one of the greatest commercial 
centers of the world — population believed to be eight 
million. 

(379.) Western Tartary. — khiva— kokand 

— samarcand — (R. these 3 — R. from Smyrna). 


(380.) Afghan State s. — CABUL. 

(381.) Cashmere. — serinagur. 

(382.) Nepaul. — katmandoo. (R. from 3 — R. 
from Smyrna). 

(383.) Bootan. — tassisudon. 

(384.) Tibet. — lassa. — ( R. these 2. — R. from 
Smyrna). 

(385.) Morocco with Tuat. — morocco — 

FEZ —TAN GIERS— (R. these 3). AGABLY—INSALAH 

(Tuat). (R. these 4). 


(386.) Algeria. — Algiers — Constantine. 
these 2 — then from Morocco). 


(R. 


9* 


132 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(387.) Tunis. — Tunis (near ruins of ancient 
Carthage) — cabes. (R. these 2. — R. from Morocco). 

(388.) Tripoli with Fezzan and Barca. — 

TBIP'OLI. 

(389.) Egypt, with Nubia and Kordofan'. — 

ALEXANDRIA-ROSETTA—CAIRO (R. these 3). SUEZ- 

RUINS OF MEMPHIS — RUINS OF THEBES. (R. these 3 

— R . from Alexandria). Assouan — dongola — 
Khartum (R. these 3 — R. from Alexandria), ruins of 
meroe (me'-ro-e) — sennaar. (R. these 2 — R. from 
Alexandria — R. from Morocco). 

(390.) Habesh or Aby ssinia. — massowah 
(mass'-o-wah)— gondar. (R, these 2 — R. from Mo¬ 
rocco). 

(391.) Somauli and Galla Country. — berbera 
hurrur (boor-oor) — brava. (R. these 3 — R. from 
Morocco). 

(392.) Suaheli Coast or Zanzibar. — mombas 

— zanzebar — (R. these 2 — R. from Morocco). 

(393.) Island kingdom of Madagascar. — 

ANTANANARIVO —tamatave (R. these 2 — then from 
Morocco). 

(394.) Portuguese colonies of Mozambique 
and Sofala. — Mozambique — sofala — (R. these 2 

— R. from Morocco). 

(395.) Zooloo Country. — No town. 

(396.) Cape Colony, with Natal and Kaffraria, 

— PIETERMARITZBURG (Natal) — GRAHAM ’S TOWN- 
CAPE town (R, these 3 — then from Morocco). 


TOWNS. 


133 


(397.) Land of the Damara and Namaqua, 
including Hottentot Country. — barmen. 

(398.) Angola. — st. paul de loando. 

(399.) Congo. — san Salvador ( R . these 3—R. 
Jrom Morocco). 

(400.) Benguela — Loango — Biafra. — No 

towns. 

(401.) Kingdom of Dahomey. — badagry. 

(402.) Negro rep. of Liberia. — Monrovia. 

(403.) Senegambia. — st. louis. (R. these 3 — 
R. from Morocco). 

(404.) Soudan. — timbuctu — kouka — wara 
(. R. these 3 — R. from Morocco). 

(405.) Land of the Bechuanas. — lattakoo 

(R. from Morocco). 

(406.) Island Towns (not elsewhere given). 

Remark. The possessions of Great Britain, Holland, 
Spain, France and United States of America (in Oceania) 
are indicated by boundary lines on PI. IV. Some parts 
of the region, marked to Holland, are, however, independent. 
Spain possesses only a part of the Philippine Is. and a part 
of the Ladrone Is. The N. W. region of the I. of Borneo, 
capital Bruni, is ruled by an independent Malay Sultan and 
the northernmost angle, by a Malay pirate state: Sulu or 
Soo-loo. 

(407.) Principal British Island Towns. — 

point de galle (Ceylon) — Singapore (I. of Singa¬ 
pore— R. these 2). Brisbane— Sydney —Melbourne 
(R. these 3 — R. from Point de Galle). Adelaide — 
Perth (Australia — R. these 2 — R. from Point de Galle). 


134 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


hobarton (Tasmania). — Auckland — Wellington — 
dunedin (New Zealand) (R. these 4. R. from Point 
de Galle). ' In Mediterranean: valetta (Malta). In 
Atlantic: James town (St. Helena — R. these 2. R. from 
Point de Galle). 

(408.) Principal Dutch Island Towns. — 

palembang (Sumatra)— batavia (Java)— banjar- 
m as sin (Borneo). (R. these 3 — R. from Point de Galle )„ 

(409.) Principal Spanish Island Towns. — 

Manilla (on I. of Luzon — Philippine Is.) — palma (on- 
Majorca — Balearic Is.). (R. these 2 — R. from Point de 

Galle). 

(410.) Principal Portuguese Island Towns. 

— angra (on I. of Terceira—Azores) — funchal, 
foon-shah — Madeiras (. R. these 2. — R. from Point de 
Galle.) 

(411.) Principal French Island Towns. — 

bastia — ajaccio, (ayat'-cho)— Corsica — (R. these 2 — 
R. from Point de Galle). 

(412.) Principal Italian Island Towns. — 

cagliari (cal-ya'ree), (Sardinia) — Palermo (Sicily — 
R. these 2 — R. from Point de Galle). 


(413.) Independent kingdom of Sandwich Is. 

— Honolulu, chief sea-port. (R. from Point de Galle)^ 


(414.) Remark. That division of Oceania, marked 
“American”, and in PI. II “American Polynesia”, consists of 
about 50 guano islands which, principally by the right of 
discovery, have become the property of various citizens of 
the United States. By an act of the United States Congress* 
August 18, 1856, they were declared part of the territory 
of the United States. The name “American Polynesia” is 
proposed in the “Mittheilungen” by Dr. Petermann. 


LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 


135 


EXERCISES 

ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 


(415.) Let us read over again sections 56 to 60. How 
many parallels of latitude are drawn on PI. II? Eight 
north and eight south. How far are they £part? Ten 
degrees. How many on PI. III? Also 8 north and 
8 south. 

(416.) Latitude of C. Horn. — Take PI. III.— What 

is the lat. of C. Horn? Between 50° and 60° S. lat. 
If the map were drawn on a large enough scal6, not only 
the degrees, but the minutes and seconds, would be 
marked on the border, and we should find the lat. of C. 
Horn to be 55 0 58' 4". A degree on all the large circles 
of the earth—that is, on equator and on any meridian — 
is about 69 english statute miles. Sixty nine times 360 
is 24,840. C. Horn, then is, about 69 times 56 (more than 
3800) miles from equator. 

% 

(«7.) First Meridian — that is, the meridian from 
which longitude is measured. — Longitude, we have seen, 
is the distance of a place, E. or W., from some given meridian. 
Ancient geographers count from Ferro, the western¬ 
most of Canary Is. (PI. II), because this island was formerly 
regarded as the westernmost point of the habitable world. 
The Germans, and the people of eastern Europe, still 
measure from Ferro; the French, sometimes from Ferro, 
sometimes from Paris; the Spaniards, from Madrid; the 
English, from the meridian which passes through the royal 
observatory of Greenwich, a part of London. In nautical 
works the Germans also measure from Greenwich. United 
States geographers measure sometimes from Greenwich, 
sometimes from Washington. In the present work, we 
measure from Greenwich. All nations ought to unite upon 
a common first meridian. 


(418.) Longitude of C. Horn. — Counting from me¬ 
ridian of Greenwich, by the arabic figures on equator, we 
find long, of C. Horn to be between 60° and 70°. On a 


136 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


a larger map we should be able to count with precision 67 0 
16' W. Read ‘‘Explanation” PL III. fig. 6. —You here 
learn to connect the terms minutes and seconds with 
distance, as navigators and other travellers do, when 
wandering over the wide surface of the globe. 

( 419 .) Length of degrees of longitude and latitude. 

— The length of degree of longitude varies in proportion 
to the disfhnce from equator. There is also a slight change 
in the length of degrees of latitude, as we approach the 
pole in consequence of the oblate shape of the globe. 

( 420 .) Different time of day, when noon at Green¬ 
wich. — Remark, on PL II, the meridian of Greenwich. 
Suppose it to be there noon. How late will it be, on the 
meridian corresponding to that of Greenwich, on the op¬ 
posite side of the globe? Midnight. As the earth re¬ 
volves from W. to E., where would the rising sun be first 
seen—on places East or West of Greenwich? On places 
E. of Greenwich of course. When therefore it is 
noon at Greenwich, where would it be 6 o’clock in the 
afternoon? On meridian 90 degrees E. of Greenwich? 
How late would it be on meridian 90° West? Six o’clock 
in the morning. You will find these 4 meridians indicated 
on PI. II. The Roman numbers, on equator, show how late 
it is, at every point of globe’s surface, when noon at 
Greenwich. 

Remark . The teacher may here put such questions as: 
When noon at New Orleans, how late would it be at 
Greenwich? Six o’clock, afternoon. — How late on 
the Feejee Is? Six o’clock morning. When noon in 
Anadir G., how late in Spitzbergen? Midnight. 

( 421 .) Latitude of different places. — A little atten¬ 
tion will secure you against awkward mistakes often made 
with regard to relative position of places. Bear in mind 
that the land of the globe lies principally north of 
equator — that S. America, an angle of Africa and Australia, 
with some small land fragments can, alone, ever have S. 
latitude. No place can have a higher latitude, than 90°. 
If we know exactly the countries intersected by equator, 
tropics and arctic circles, we already approach a clear idea 
of the relative position of all the countries of the earth. 


LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 


137 


Let us divide the countries of N. hem. into 7 groups, solely 
with reference to their astronomical position on the earth’s 
surface. 

(422.) Countries, etc., on, or near, equator. —Ecuador — 
Colombia — Venezuela—( R. these 3). English—Dutch — 
French Guiana — ( R. these 3 — -R. from equator). Brazil — 
Bolivia — Peru — (How manyf R. those 9). Lower Guinea, 
with Congo, Loango, Biafra — ( R. these 4 — R. from equator ). 
Unexplored regions of Central Africa — Empires of Muropue 
and Cazembe — ( R. these 2 — R. from equator). Somauli 
and Galla Country — Suaheli Coast or Zanzibar ( R. these 3 

— R. from equator). Sumatra — Borneo — Celebes ( R. these 
3 — R. from equator). Papua or New Guinea, through 
Malaysian and Polynesian Is., American Polynesia to Ecuador 
again ( R. from Ecuador). 

(423.) Countries, etc., on, or near, 45th parallel. — 

The 45 th parallel is exactly half way between equator 
and pole. The objects are (Plates III and IV) northern 
torritories and states of the United States—great Lakes — 
Nova Scotia ( R. these 3). French Fishery Is. — France — 
Switzerland (R. these 3 — R. from United States). Roumania 

— Turkey in Europe — Black Sea — ( R. these 3 — R. from 
U. States). Russia in Europe — Caspian Sea—Sea of Aral 

— (R. these 3 — R. from U. States). Western Tartary or 
Toorkistan — L. Balkash — China ( R. these 3 — R. from U. 
States). Japan, across Pacific to United States again ( R. 
from U. States — R. countries on equator — on 45 th parallel). 

(424.) Countries, etc., on, or near, tropic of Cancer. 

— The tropic of Cancer is about half way between 45th 
parallel and equator; nearly one quarter between equator 
and pole. The countries and other objects are: Mexico — 
Florida—West India Is. ( R. these 3). Sahara—Egypt — 
Arabia (R. these 3 — R. from Mexico). Persian G. — Arabian 
Sea — Beloochistan ( R. these 3 — R. from Mexico). Hindostan 

— Indo-Chinese States — China (R. these 3 — R. from Mexico). 

Philippine Is. — Sandwich Is. — Mexico (R. these 3 — R. from 
Mexico'). / 

(425.) Countries, etc., on arctic circle. — Behring 
Str. — Russian America—British America ( R. these 3). 


138 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Unoccupied Arctic Lands—Greenland — Iceland—(A. these 
3 — R. from Behring Str.). Sweden and Norway — Russia 
in Europe — Russia in Asia or Siberia (R. these 3 — R. from 
Behring Str.) Tchooktchee P.—Behring Str. ( R. from 
Behring Str. to Behring Str. — R. Objects on equator—on 
45 parallel—tropic of Cancer—arctic circle). 

(426.) Countries, etc., on, or near, tropic of Capricorn. 

— Bolivia — Peru — Chili ( R. these 3). Argentine Confed¬ 
eration— Paraguay — Brazil {R. these 3 — R. from Bolivia). 
Land of the Darnara and Namaqua, including Hottentot 
Country ( R. these 3 — R.from Bolivia). Land of Bechuanas 

— Cape Colony — Transvaal Rep. ( R . these 3 — R. from 
Bolivia). Zooloo Country — Madagascar — Australia ( R. 
these 3 — R. from Bolivia). PI. II. New Caledonia — 
Feejee Is.—Friendly Is. (R. these 3 — R. from Bolivia). 
Society Is.— Low Is.—Pitcairn Is. (R. these 3 — R.from 
Bolivia). 


(427.) Countries on, or near, 45 parallel south. — 

S. point of Chili — Patagonia—Tasmania or Van Diemen’s 
Land ( R. from tropic of Capricorn—45 parallel S). 


( 428.) Objects on antarctic circle. — Graham Land 
— Cape Ann — Repulse B. — Wilkes Land {R.from arctic 
circle — tropic of Capricorn — 45 parallel S). 

( 429.) Towns on, or near, parallel of Hammerfest 

(northernmost town of the globe). — Among the very few 
human habitations near parallel 70, are: Hammerfest — 
Tornea — Archangel (R. these 3). Olensk — Yakootsk— 
Nishnei-Kolymsk (R. these 3— R. from Hammerfest). Godt- 
haab — Reikiavik, etc, (R. these 2—R. from Hammerfest). 

(430.) Towns near parallel of St. Petersburg. — 

The class of towns, next removed from the frozen regions, 
will be found between or near the 55 ° — 60° parallels. St. 
Petersburg — Moscow — Nishnei-Novgorod {R. these 3). 
Kasan ■—Tobolsk — Barnaul (R. these 3 — R. from St. Peters¬ 
burg). Krasnojarsk — Irkutsk—Okhotsk (R. these 3 — R. 
from St. P.). Nicolajefsk — Petropaulovsk (R. these 2 — R. 
from St. P.). Across Pacific, New Archangel — Fort York 
{R. these 2 — R. from St. P.). Glasgow — Edinburgh — 


CONFIGURATION OF GLOBE’S SURFACE. 139 


Dundee (/?. these 3 — R. from St. P.). Copenhagen — 
Gothenburg — Bergen ( R. these 3 — R. from St. P.). 
Christiania — Upsala — Stockholm (R. these 3 — R. from St. 
P.). Reval — Riga — St. Petersburg (R. these 3 — R. from 
St. P.). 

(431.) London — about parallel 51. — London — 
Berlin — Warsaw (R. these 3). New Westminster — Fort 
Garry — Quebec ( R. these 3 — R. from London). Montreal — 
St. John (i?. these 2 — R. from London). 

(432.) New York — lat 41°. — Oporto—Madrid — 
Rome ( R. these 3). Naples — Constantinople — Trebisond 
(R. these 3 — R. from Oporto). Khiva — Kokand — Samar- 
cand ( R. these 3 — R. from Oporto). Peking — Mookden — 
Kirin-oola (R. these 3 ■— R. from Oporto). Han-yang— 
Hakodadi — (across Pacific) Salt Lake City — Chicago — 
Cleveland — (R. these 5 — R. from Oporto). 

The teacher may multiply these questions at discretion. 


CONFIGURATION OF GLOBE’S SURFACE. 


(433.) We abridge from eminent geographers, among 
whom are Humboldt and Carl Ritter, a few striking observ¬ 
ations on this subject.* 

1. The northern hemis. (PI. First, I. K) contains three 
times as much land as the southern—the eastern (E. G), 
twice as much land as the western. 2. The N. temperate 
zone presents a greater proportion of land than any other; and 
13 times more than the S. temperate zone, (I. L). 3. On 

equator, five-sixths of the circumference is water, the excep¬ 
tion being narrow extremities of S. America, Africa and 
several Malaysian Is. (I. K). 4. In each continent, a great 

fragment is nearly broken off from the mainland, S. America 
being united only by Isthmus of Darien—Africa, by that 


* A small volume from Ritter, translated by Mr. Gage, and 
published by Lippencott, is recommended to american students. 



140 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


of Suez. 5. The peninsulas of the world are generally 
projected toward the South; as Scandinavia, Spain, Italy, 
Turkey, Greece, Arabia, Hindostan, Indo-China, Corea, 
Kamtchatka, Africa, S. America, Aliaska, California, Ma¬ 
lacca, Florida, Nova Scotia, and Greenland. The principal 
exceptions are, Jutland, and Yucatan, stretching north¬ 
ward— Russian America and Asia Minor, westward. 
6. Peninsulas, like continents, have often the same pyramidal 
termination — ex. Hindostan, Greenland, etc. 7. The E. 
and W. Continents each throw out, far to the north, insu¬ 
lar masses; one — Greenland and the Arctic Archipelago; 
the other — Nova Zemla Is., New Siberia Is. and Spitz- 
bergen. In N. hem. human explorations appear to have 
been arrested about the 82 parallel. The am. expedition, 
under Hayes, reached or saw the most northern land of 
the known world. (PI. IV). 8. The greatest breadth of 
both continents is on the same parallel — 50 th (PI. IV). 

9. The southern extremities of Africa, Australia, New 
Zealand and S. America (PI. IV) form a regular gradation, 
each reaching nearer the pole in the order above named, 

10. Both hemispheres have submarine prolongations, indi¬ 
cated, in S. America and Asia, by islands—in Africa, by 
shoals. 11. Considering Australia a continent, one twenty- 
fourth of the earth’s land consists of islands. 12. Differ¬ 
ent and remote portions of the globe seem cast in somewhat 
the same mould, as if the form were determined by the 
same law: Examples. Florida, extending into West India 
Is.; — Grecian P., into Grecian Archipelago — Malacca, into 
Malaysian Is. Cuba lies, near Florida, in somewhat the 
same relative position as Sumatra, near Malacca. 13. Three 
pointed peninsulas projected by Europe southward into 
Mediterranean, namely: Spanish P., Italy, Grecian P.— 
correspond to three, projected by Asia into Indian Ocean 
—Arabia, Hindostan and China. Remark the juxtaposi¬ 
tion of Italy and Sicily, compared with that of Hindostan 
and Ceylon. 14. S. America, Africa, Australia, are almost 
destitute of gulfs and bays. N. America, Europe and Asia, 
on the contrary, have innumerable, deep recesses, and pro¬ 
trude immense, shattered prominences. 15. The projections 
and indentations of eastern coast of America singularly 
coincide with those of western coasts of Europe and Africa. 
The eastern angle of S. America suggests the idea that it 
once occupied the place of G. of Guinea; while the western 


CONFIGURATION OF GLOBE’S SURFACE. 141 


protuberance of Africa looks as if it had been torn out of 
Mexico. The conformity of opposite coasts of Greenland 
and Norway is obvious. 16. Humboldt remarks the still 
more interesting circumstance; viz. that, not only the 
projections of one coast correspond with the recesses of 
the other, but the nature of the mountains and plains also 
correspond. 17. As mountain ranges run in the direction 
of the greatest length of each continent, so they do in 
islands and peninsulas. Examples — Apennines—Ghauts — 
Scandinavian Mts. etc. 18. The highest mountain peaks 
rise in, or near, torrid zone. Mt. Aconcagua is just outside 
the tropic of Capricorn; Mt. Everest, just outside the 
tropic of Cancer. 19. The loftiest mountain ranges or 
peaks stand upon elevated table-lands, as a statue upon 
its pedestal. 20. The greatest elevation, above the 
sea-level, of any point of the globe’s surface, is 5 or 5Va 
miles; say 1—1400th (one fourteen-hundredth) part of the 
earth’s diameter. The proportion is that of a grain of 
sand upon the surface of a polished ivory globe, 6 feet in 
diameter; so that the sphericity of the planet is scarcely 
disturbed. The inequalities are not so great as those of 
an orange. Supposing the orange to be our earth, the 
roughnesses of the skin, scarcely perceptible to the eye or 
hand, would be stupendous mountain ranges, lifting their 
awful heads into the heavens. “And, creeping at their base,” 
it is sometimes added, “what an insignificant insect is man!” 

(434.) Remark. A momentary digression is here proper. 
There is a class of writers who think the smallness of 
man’s body, a reason for rejecting the Scriptures. Compared 
with the earth’s dimensions—still more with astronomic 
distances (16, 17, 19) — man is such an inconceivably di¬ 
minutive animalcule* that the idea of God making a Revel¬ 
ation to him, is simply absurd. There are learned philos¬ 
ophers not ashamed to talk this kind of nonsense! The 
logical reply is: — it has no connection whatever with 
the subject. Intellectual and spiritual existence and pre¬ 
eminence are not dependent upon material dimensions. The 
sophist may be confuted by the following question; “If 
Plato, Paul and John are of too minute bodily stature to 


* An-i-maP-cule — an animal too small to be discerned 
except by a microscope. 



142 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


occupy the attention of their Creator, — howmany million 
miles tall ought they to be, in order to attract God’s 
love, and to become worthy of revelation and immortality ?” 

Geology and Astronomy are most unjustly accused of 
contradicting Scripture in another point. Science, it is 
pretended, has discovered that the universe is explainable 
without God. This is altogether untrue. We repeat 
(280), and the fact cannot be too distinctly proclaimed: 
science has never explained, and has not made the least 
progress toward explaining, the origin of things. The 
wisest savant, on this point, is as ignorant as a little 
child. It is true, Copernicus, Kepler and Newton discovered 
certain laws of matter, and showed how the laws operate. 
But, whence came those laws? Whence came matter? 
Whence came Copernicus, Kepler and Newton? The 
atheist accounts for the bird by following it back to the 
egg; but ask him to account for the egg! Science has 
traced many effects to causes, and made amazing discoveries ; 
but who has discovered the primal cause? Of the 
universe and man, there is only one explanation:—“In 
the beginning God created.” 


DISTANCES AND DIMENSIONS. 


(435.) We naturally desire to know the distance and 
size of places; but a scale of distance, for planispheres, like 
Plates II and III, would be too abstruse. Some consider¬ 
ations, however, will assist us informing tolerably correct 
ideas. We know (22) that the equatorial circumference is 
24,840 English or statute miles, and that the polar circum¬ 
ference is nearly the same. A traveller, passing around 
the earth, either on the equator, or on any meridian, would 
thus make a journey, the length of which we know 
exactly. Half way around the globe, therefore, on a 
great circle, (either the equator or a meridian), is half 
of 24,480 miles, namely 12,240 miles. One quarter is 
6120 miles, and so on. This already gives some idea of 
distances. From the pole to the equator (Plate II) is one 


DISTANCES AND DIMENSIONS. 


143 


quarter of the globe’s circumference. A quarter of the 
length of the equator must be the same distance. If, there¬ 
fore, you travel from any place, on the equator, to the 
N. or S. Pole — say from Borneo, the Gaboon River, Chim¬ 
borazo etc., your journey is about 6120 miles long. But 
this is a vague mode of measuring, even for places, both 
of which lie on the meridian. We have a more exact mode. 
As every meridian, and, of course, the equator, is divided 
into 360°, a degree, on the equator or on the meridian, 
must be the 360th part of 24,840 miles — namely 69 En¬ 
glish miles and a fraction. 

(436.) 

Geographical mile — English or Statute 
Mile. — The word mile has different meanings. It varies 
in different countries. The English statute mile is 5280 
feet; while the English geographical mile is one-sixth longer; 
its length being determined by the fact that there are 
exactly 60 of them in every equatorial degree. It would 
be a great convenience to mankind, if a common standard 
could be universally adopted. 

(437.) Places on, or near, equator. — We thus easily 
find the distance, length and breadth of places lying E. or 
W. of each other on, or near, equator (PI. IV). What is 
the breadth of S. America on equator? — Omit fractions. 
About 30 degrees. How many English miles?—207 0 
miles. Breadth of I. of Sumatra?—About 4° or 2 76 
miles. Distance, in degrees and miles, of the town Brava 
in Somauli and Galla Country (Africa), from Singapore? 
— 60° or 4 140 English miles. Distance from Batavia 
to Guayaquil? — 172° or 1 1,868 English miles. 
Breadth of Atlantic from mouth of the Amazon R. to mouth 
of Gaboon R.? About 60° or 4140 English miles. 

(438.) Places on same meridian. — What is the 
greatest length of S. America? About 69° — 4761 En¬ 
glish miles. Greatest breadth of Australia? — 29° — 
2000 miles. Breadth of United States of America from 
Brownsville to Lake of the Woods? — About 24°—1656 
miles. Length of England and Scotland? — 9°—6^ 1 
miles. Length of Caspian Sea? — About 11° — 7 60 
miles. 


144 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(439.) Distance of places according to parallels. — 

We- have thus a certain mode of measuring the distances 
of places where both lie on equator, and also where both 
lie on same meridian. Would this mode be applicable to 
places lying E. and W. of each other on different parallels 
of latitude? No, because the length of degrees, of 
course, varies according to each parallel. How 
then shall we measure the distance of two places on the 
same parallel? We must ascertain the value,' in English 
miles, of a degree on that parallel. For this we must have 
a table. One will be found (Plate IV, Explanation 2), on which 
the length, in English miles, of a degree of longitude is 
given on the equator, and also the different lengths, on 16 
different parallels of latitude. Let us measure the greatest 
length E. and W. of United States (PI. Ill or IV) on 
49°—i. e, the northernmost parallel. How many degrees? 
— About 56°. We learn from the table that the degree 
of longitude, on this parallel, instead of being 69, as on 
equator, is only 44. What then is the length of the United 
States, in English miles? — About 2500 miles. We thus, 
by help of the table, easily measure, in English miles, the 
distance of all points on the same parallel. 


VOYAGES. 

(PLATE IY.) 


(440.) Projections. — It is almost impossible to con¬ 
struct maps so as to give the relative magnitudes of conti¬ 
nents, countries etc. with exactness, although their shapes 
may be accurate. The different methods devised for doing 
so, are called Projections. We shall here only notice 
two. In Plates 1. II. and III. the earth is drawn as a 
globe. This is called the: — 


(441.) Globular Projection. — Here (PI. II) the 
equator is the largest circle. Every parallel is a small 
circle; and the parallels grow smaller, as they recede from 
the equator; till, at the pole, they dwindle to a point. 


VOYAGES. 


145 


We have already seen that a degree, on the equator, con¬ 
tains more miles than on any parallel; and must, moreover, 
be of different length, on each parallel. One advantage of 
this projection therefore is, that the shapes of continents, 
oceans, etc., are given more correctly. On the other hand’ 
one of the disadvantages is, that certain places, in nature, 
close to each other, appear remote; for ex.: Behring Str. 
and Japan — Australia and New Zealand. We receive a 
■confused idea of the relative bearings of those parts of the 
globe “whose contiguity, in the planisphere map”, is well 
said to be “so awkwardly interrupted by the diverging 
circumferences of the two hemispheres.” 

You must distinctly understand the above expression. 
We shall read to you the questions concerning it, with 
their answers. Take PI. II. What projection is that? 
A globular projection.—How is that kind of map 
called?—A planisphere or planiglobe. Why? Be¬ 
cause it represents a sphere on a flat surface 
or plane. Trace with your finger the circumferences of 
the two hemispheres in PI. II. What is the meaning of 
the word, “contiguity?” The actual contact or touch¬ 
ing of two bodies (from two latin words, signifying 
together and touch). The sentence, which we are analyzing, 
means then that, places or countries, which, in nature, touch 
each other, are, on planisphere maps, awkwardly separated. 
Define the word, “diverging!”—Proceeding from one 
point and leaning away, in different directions. 
Show on PI. II. where the circumferences of the hemi¬ 
spheres meet or touch? — At 20° W. long. — Where do 
they diverge? — They immediately begin to diverge 
or to separate from each other, and may be called 
“diverging or separated circumferences”, at all their other 
points. The form of the earth is represented as that of an 
apple cut into two halves; each half separated from the 
other and presented to the eye in that separated condition. 
Give an example or two of some objects whose contiguity, 
in the planisphere map (PI. II), is awkwardly interrupted 
by the diverging circumferences of the two hemispheres? 
— Iceland. It is quite cut in two. Kamtchatka. 
Indeed all the points, bordering on the circumference of 
one hemisphere, are separated from corresponding points, 
bordering on the circumference of the other hemisphere, 

10 


146 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


with which they ought to be connected. Not only the 
contiguity, but also, of course, the proximity is inter¬ 
rupted. Places, near to each other, are made to appear 
remote; for instance, New Zealand and Australia—Japan 
and Aliaska. The Antarctic Continent, which ought to be 
one figure, a huge ice-mass, is cut in two; and the fragments 
recede so far away from each other that we can scarcely 
bear in mind their contiguity. Polynesia, Australasia, the 
Tchooktchee P., are also awkwardly separated; the Azores 
(PI. IV), opposite Lisbon, near Madeira, are made to recede 
from both; while Greenland, comparatively near Scotland 
and Ireland, looks more remote than the C. of Good Hope. 
Among other distortions, are the Atlantic and Pacific — 
particularly the former. The appearance presents a per¬ 
petual puzzle to the young student endeavoring to trace a 
voyage from New York to London. 

(442.) Mercator’s Projection (PI. IV.) — was intro¬ 
duced by Mercator (mer-ca'-tor), in 1556, for the particular 
convenience of mariners. It is also called the Cylindrical 
Projection, because it is drawn as if the earth were 
shaped like a cylinder, as in PI. VIII. O. A cylinder, 
in Geometry, is a long, circular body, of uniform diameter, 
its extremities forming equal parallel circles. If the earth 
were shaped so, its surface, unrolled, would appear like 
PI. IV; — the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer — the arctic 
and antarctic circles — the parallel of latitude at the pole — 
and all the other parallels, would be as large as the equator. 
The degrees upon each, therefore, would be of the same length. 
— But the earth is not shaped so. Hence the disadvantage 
of this map is that, among other peculiarities, the length of 
the degrees of longitude, and those of latitude, are exag¬ 
gerated toward the poles; and the relative magnitudes of 
the polar regions and the objects near them, as compared 
with those near the equator, are larger than they ought 
to be. Greenland, Sweden, Norway, British America, Asia 
(PI. IV), will strike your eye as shapes different from those 
in Pis. I. II. III. Bearing this in mind, so as not to fall 
into an error as to the relative dimensions of places in the 
polar and equatorial regions, the Mercator projection is 
useful in several respects. It may be safely- consulted in 
connection with the planispheres; for the errors of the two 
projections correct each other. We see the earth’s entire 


VOYAGES. 


147 


surface at one view. No diverging circumferences interrupt 
the contiguity, or distort the proximity, of places. The 
disjoined pieces of Iceland and Kamtchatka — the Atlantic 
and Pacific — Polynesia and Australasia—re-appear in their 
natural entireness. We see New Zealand, close to Australia, 
in its right place, and regular gradation between C. of Good 
Hope and S. Pole (433-ninth paragraph). The eye follows 
with pleasure every unbroken outline, and traces the rela¬ 
tive position of every point — of Kamtchatka and Behring 
Str. — Tcliooktchee P. and Japan — Iceland, Greenland, 
Norway and Great Britain — New York and London — the 
Azores and Madeiras — the La Plata and C. of Good 
Hope. The youngest schoolboy can go, in imagination, 
from New York to London, without embarrassment. We 
have, therefore, chosen the Mercator projection for the 
following imaginary voyages to different countries and towns 
of the world, although it will often be found useful to 
refer to Plates I. II. III. 

(443.) it would not be an easy task to cross all the 
regions and visit all the points of the globe. We should 
meet a variety of obstacles not always surmountable. Some¬ 
times we should find ourselves among populations speaking 
languages quite unintelligible — in lands desolated by wars 

— in oceans blocked up with ice — in burning deserts or 
frozen steppes, where neither animal nor man can resist the 
winter storm or the summer drought — in places afflicted 
with pestilence or malaria—seas infested with cruel pirates 
or embarrassed by dangerous marine vegetation — savage 
districts or islands where we incur the peril, not only of 
being murdered, but of being eaten by our fellow-beings. 
Magellan, who gave his name to the Strait, was killed (1521), 
by the savages of the Philippine Is. Cook was massacred 
by the natives of the Sandwich Is. (1779). An interesting 
young Prussian savant, Mr. Schlagintweit, after crossing 
the Himalaya Mts., from Calcutta to Lhassa (Pis. IV and 
III), was seized, by the fanatic chief of a Turkish tribe, and 
beheaded (1837). 

(444.) Voyage from New Yonk to Nishnei-Novgorod. 

— Remark. 1. As it is not the object of these voyage- 
lessons to convey instruction concerning present routes 
of travel, steamships, railroads, etc., we do not always choose 

10 * 


148 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


the most direct way. 2. Degrees of latitude and longitude, 
miles, etc., are given without fractions. 

Point out Nishnei-Novgorod (nizh'-nee). Go to it by 
Gibraltar. — In what country? Russia in Europe. — In 
what direction from New York? North-east. — Longitude 
of New York? 74° W. from Greenwich. — Longitude 
of Nishnei-Novgorod? 4 4° E. — How many degrees is 
Nishnei-Novgorod E. of New-York? 118°. — Latitude of 
New York? 41°. — Latitude of Novgorod? 56°. — How 
many degrees does Novgorod lie N. of New York? 15°.— 
Bound Russia in Europe (Plates IV and III). N. by a 
part of Sweden, White Sea and Arctic Ocean; E. 
by Russia in Asia or Siberia and Caspian Sea; 
S. by Caspian Sea, Persia, Turkey in Asia, Black 
Sea, Roumania, Austria; W. by Black Sea, Rou- 
mania, Austria, Germany, Baltic and Sweden.— 
In what zone lies Russia in Europe? N. temperate and 
north frigid. — What is the northernmost parallel of 
Russia in Europe? About 7 0°.— Conditions of day, 
night and seasons on that parallel? Longest day, two 
months; longest night, of course, the same. (See 
Explanation, at left, of PI. IV; also Text-Book 93 and 94). 
It thus lies far within arctic circle and the region of intense 
polar cold. The southernmost parallel? 3 9°. Conditions 
of day, night and seasons on this parallel? Longest day 
and, of course, longest night — about 15 hours: 

— not very different from the day and night of Boston and 
New York. What countries or places lie on that northern 
seventieth parallel, going E. around the world? Russia 
in Asia — Russian America — Unoccupied Arctic 
Lands — Baffin Bay—Greenland—northern part of 
Norway and Sweden.—What countries or places lie on, or 
near, the southernmost parallel, going E. around the world? 
Russia in Asia — Western Tartary or Toorkistan 

— Chinese Empire — Kingdom of Corea — Empire 
of Japan—the United States — Portugal —Spain 
Italy (Rome, Naples) — Greece — Turkey in Asia.— 
In going from New York to Novgorod, what waters do you 
pass through or near? E. across Atlantic — then (PI. 
II. fig. 5) — Str. of Gibraltar—G. of Lions—G. of 
Genoa —Tyrrhenian Sea — Str. of Messina (Scylla 
and Charybdis) — Ionian Sea — Adriatic Sea — 
Levant(191) — Aegean Sea or Grecian Archipelago 


VOYAGES. 


149 


— Str. Dardanelles or Hellespont — Sea Marmora 

— Str. of Constantinople or Bosphorus—(now PI. HI. 
Fig. 1) — Black Sea — Str. of Kertch or Yenikale 

— Sea of Azof—(now PI. IV)—up river Don, cross 
canal to Volga (largest river in Europe), to 
Novgorod. — What countries have you coasted, on your 
left? Portugal — Spain — France —Italy—Austria 

— Turkey inEurope — Greece — Turkey in Europe 
again — a small part of the coast of Roumania 

— Black Sea — then Russia in Europe.— What 
countries did you pass on your right? Morocco — 
Algeria — Tunis — Tripoli with Barca and Fezzan 

— Egypt—Turkey in Asia (including Palestine or 
the Holy Land).—The mouths of what great rivers have 
you passed on your left? Guadalquivir — Ebro — 
Rhone — Po — Danube — Dniester — Dnieper and 
Don. — The mouth of what great river on your right? 
The Nile.—Name towns you passed on, or near, your left? 
Cadiz — Granada — Marseilles — Rome — Naples 

— Palermo — Athens — Constantinople—Odessa— 
Sebastople.—Name towns on your right. Tangiers — 
Algiers — Constantine — Tunis— Cabes — Tripoli — 
Alexandria — Cairo — Rosetta — Jerusalem — St. 
Jean D’Acre — Beiruth — Damascus — Aleppo — 
Smyrna — Trebizond — Kazan — Novgorod. — On 
what sea, lake or river stand the following towns? Mar¬ 
seilles? On G. of Lions. — Constantinople? On Strait 
of Constantinople or Bosphorus, near Black Sea.— 
Trebizond? On Black Sea.—Smyrna? On Aegean Sea 
or Grecian Archipelago.—Alexandria? Rosetta? Cairo? 
On Nile. — Beiruth? St. Jean D’Acre? On Mediterra¬ 
nean.— Read rivers of Russia in Europe, beginning with 
Volga, going W. and N. around. — Volga — Don — 
Dnieper — Dniester — Prutli — Niemen (nee'-men) — 
Duna — Dwina — Petchora. Read towns of Russia in 
Europe. — Nishnei-Novgorod — Kazan «— Moscow — 
Astrachan — Sebastople — Odessa — Kiev — Warsaw 

— Riga — Reval — St. Petersburg — Archangel — 
Tornea. On what sea, lake or river stand the following 
towns? Astrachan? On Volga and Caspian Sea.— 
Archangel? On White Sea.—Tornea? On Baltic.—St. 
Petersburg? On Neva R. and G. of Finland.—Reval? 
Riga? On Baltic.—Warsaw? OnVistula.—Kiev?(Kief) 


150 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


On Dnieper. — Nishnei-Novgorod? At the confluence 
of Oka with Volga. 

( 445.) Nishnei-Novgorod. — This town, beside being 
a great center of trade between Europe and Asia, interests 
the traveler as the seat of the largest fair in the world. 
From 2 to 300,000 (and sometimes more) Europeans and 
Asiatics are collected; sales of wares and products take 
place, to the amount of a hundred million dollars, within 
about eight weeks. There, mingle in the immense crowd, 
the long - bearded Russian tradesman, the Greek, with his 
beautiful costume of scarlet and white, the Tartar, the 
Turk, the Jew, the Persian, the Chinese, the Indian, the 
Mongol, the Thibet merchant, and the agent of the Russian 
American Fur-Company, with rich furs — brilliant, fiery fox 
skms — precious ermines of Yakootsk — splendid sables, etc. 
For these wares, so much prized by the princes and nobles 
of Turkey,^ Persia and Russia, the fur merchant receives 
hundreds of thousands of dollars. 

( 446.) From Nishnei-Novgorod to Petropaulovsk 

(sometimes written Petropaulovski—pe-tro-pow-lof'skee) by 
Irkutsk and Nicolajefsk. Point out Petropaulovsk. — In 
what country? Russia in Asia.—In what direction from 
Nishnei-Novgorod? Nearly E.—Longitude of Nishnei- 
Novgorod? 44° E. from Greenw ich.—Longitude of 
Petropaulovsk? 159° E.—How many degrees is Petro¬ 
paulovsk distant from Nishnei-Novgorod? 115°.—Lati¬ 
tude of Nishnei-Novgorod? 56° N. — How many degrees 
lies Petropaulovsk S. of Novgorod? 3° S.—Bound Russia 
in Asia. N. by Arctic Ocean; E. by Arctic Ocean, 
Behring Str., separating from Russian America, 
and by Pacific; S. by Pacific, Chinese Empire, 
Western Tartary or Toorkistan, Persia; W. by 
Caspian Sea, Europe, Ural river, Ural Mts. and 
Arctic Ocean.—In what zones lies Russia in Asia? N. 
temperate and N. frigid zones.—What is the northern¬ 
most parallel of Russia in Asia? 7 8°.— Conditions of day, 
night, climate, etc., in places on that parallel? About 
4 months uninterrupted day in summer, the same 
night in winter; of course polar cold and ever¬ 
lasting ice. —What is the southernmost parallel of Russia 
in Asia ? 3 8 0 N. —Conditions of day and night in places 


VOYAGES, 


151 


on that parallel? About 15 hours day in summer, 
the same night in winter, much the same as in 
New-York. — What towns, countries or places lie on, or 
near, that northernmost parallel going E. around the world? 
Grinnell Land — Smith Strait — Greenland — Spitz- 
bergen.—What towns, countries or places lie on, or near, 
that southernmost parallel going E. around the world? 
Persia — Western Tartary or Toorkistan — part of 
the Afghan States—Chinese Empire — kingdom 
of Corea—Nip lion (the principal island of Japan) — 
San Francisco — Sacramento — St. Louis — Louis¬ 
ville— Philadelphia — and Washington.—What coun¬ 
tries, mountains, lakes, seas, interesting regions do you pass 
through, or near, in coming from Nishnei-Novgorod to Pe- 
tropaulovsk ? Ural Mts. — Lake Baikal — Sea of 
Okhotsk.—What great rivers have you passed? Irtish 

— Ob (Obi)—Yenisei, with its branch Toongooska 
or Angara — Lena. — By what towns did you pass? 
Kasan —Tobolsk — Barnaul — Krasnoyarsk —Ir- 
kootsk — Kiakhta, adjoining the Chinese town 
Maimatchin — Nicolajefsk— to Petropaulovsk.— 
Read the rivers of Russia in Asia. Obi, with its 
branch Irtish—Yenisei, with Toongooska or 
Angara—Lena — Kolyma and Amoor. — Read towns 
of Russia in Asia? Tobolsk—Barnaul — Krasnoyarsk 

— Irkootsk— Kiakhta — Nicolajefsk — Petropau¬ 
lovsk — Okhotsk — Yakootsk — Nishnei-Kolymsk — 
Olensk. — On what sea, lake or river stand following 
towns in Siberia or Russia in Asia? Tobolsk? On Irtish.— 
Barnaul? On Obi.—Krasnoyarsk? On Yenisei.—Irkootsk? 
On Toongooska or Angara (branch of Yenisei).— 
Yakootsk? On Lena. — Nicolajefsk? On Amoor.— 
Nishnei-Kolymsk? On Kolyma. 

(447.) Irkootsk — nearly 4000 miles from St. Peters¬ 
burg and 1400 miles from Peking—is almost in the center 
of Asia, where one would least suppose New York and 
Paris fashions and comforts. Yet, so rapidly is the world 
changing under the influence of telegraphs, railroads and 
steamships, that the traveler will find it, in many respects, 
resembling the towns of western Europe — a theatre, schools, 
a library, 19 churches, a seminary, an orphan asylum, manu¬ 
factures, etc. It is the great center of the Russian-Chinese 


152 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


trade, with an increasing population of about 25,000, and be¬ 
tween 2 and 3000 houses. It is the administrative seat of 
government of the Russian Empire, for all affairs connected 
with the fleet and marine establishment of the Pacific Ocean; 
as it has been for Russian American Fur-Company, till 
the late purchase (523). 

( 44 8.) Nikolajefsk — on Amoor R. Here we shall 
find a modern Russian town and fortified military post, 
several hundred blockhouses, a new handsome church with 
a lofty tower, many government buildings, a museum, an 
observatory, a library of 4000 volumes, many schools, and 
a brisk trade. The principal european newspapers have sub¬ 
scribers here. It is a station of the Russian fleet and 
may become an important point of communication with 
California. The Russian steamers ply up the River Amoor, 
on which it stands. The cold is, however, intense and the 
river is frozen many months of the year. 

Remark. We w T ill not extend our journey to the 
cheerless region of northern Siberia — to Olensk, the 
northernmost town of the Russian Empire — nor to Nishnei- 
Kolymsk, upon the Kolima River, the coldest point of 
Russia, where the summer breezes, although they bring 
millions of mosquitoes, are mingled with snow; while in 
January the thermometer falls to 40° R. (58° F), 


(449.) Petropaulovsk — capital town of Kamtchatka— 
principal station of Russian government in this part of the 
world — population, about 1000 — harbor, formed by a 
tongue of land, one of the most beautiful and secure upon 
the earth — by Aleutian Is. closely connected with the 
Russian Territory, now part of the U. States. 

(450.) From Petropaulovsk to New York. — Go by 

New Archangel— San Francisco — Panama — Aspinwall — 
New Orleans and Key West. — Point out New York.— 
In what direction from Petropaulovsk? S. E.—Longitude 
of Petropaulovsk ? 159° E. from Greenwich.—Longitude 
of New York?7 4° W. — How many degrees does New 
York lie E. of Petropaulovsk? 124°. — Latitude of Petro¬ 
paulovsk? 53° N.— Latitude of New York? About 
41° N. — How many degrees does New York lie N. or S. 


VOYAGES. 


153 


of Petropaulovsk? 12° S. — Bound United States of 
America. N. by British America; E. by British 
America, Atlantic, G. of Mexico; S. by Atlantic, 
G. of Mexico, Mexico; W. by Mexico and Pacific. 
—In what zone lie the United States? Altogether in the 
N. temperate zone, but much nearer the torrid 
than the frigid zone.—Northernmost parallel of United 
States? 49° N.— Conditions of day, night, climate, etc., 
on that parallel? 16 hours longest day and longest 
night.—Southernmost parallel of the United States? 25°N. 

— Conditions of day, night, climate, etc., on that parallel? 
Between 13 and 14 hours longest night, etc. 

Remark. While the northern parallel sensibly ap¬ 
proaches the character of the frigid zone, the southern 
parallel is almost identical with tropic of Cancer. The 
winters of the North, therefore, are long and severe, while 
the southern states have a tropical climate. It is to be 
observed, however, that climate does not exclusively depend 
on latitude, but is modified by other circumstances; as, for 
instance, elevation, the ocean, mountains, northern or 
southern slope, geological character of the surface, winds, 
etc. — What towns, countries or places lie on, or near, that 
northernmost parallel going E. around the world? Quebec 

— St. John — Newfoundland — Paris — Munich — 
Vienna — Odessa — Maimatchin — Kiakhta — and 
Victoria (on Vancouver I.).—What towns, countries or 
places lie on, or near, the southernmost parallel, going E. 
around the world? Canary Is. — desert of Sahara 

— Insalah — Mourzouk — Assouan — Ruins of 
Thebes — Medina — er-Riad — Muscat —Kelat — 
Currachee —Lucknow — Calcutta —Canton —Sand¬ 
wich Is. — What waters do you pass through, or near, 
from Petropaulovsk to New York? Pacific —then 
crossing Isthmus of Darien or Panama — B. of 
Darien —Mosquito B. — Caribbean Sea — B. of Hon¬ 
duras— G. of Mexico and Atlantic.—What countries 
have you passed on your left? Russia in Asia or Si¬ 
beria — Russian America — British America — 
United States of America — Mexico — republics of 
Central America, namely: Guatemala — St. Salvador 

— Honduras—Nicaragua — and Costa Rica — and 
that part of the 1st hmus b elongi n g to theUnited 


154 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


States of Colombia, then crossing the Isthmus, 
through territory of Colombia, we pass Costa 
Rica again, Nicaragua — Mosquito Coast — Hon¬ 
duras — Guatemala — Balize or British Hon¬ 
duras—Mexico—United States, to New York.—What 
countries have you passed on your right? Colombia — 
Hayti and republic of San Domingo. — The mouths 
of what great rivers have you passed on your left? 
Kwickpack or Yucon — Frazer — Columbia — Colo¬ 
rado— Rio Grande del Norte — Mississippi — Hud¬ 
son.—Name the towns on, or near the coast, you have 
passed on your left? New Archangel — New West¬ 
minster— Victoria*— Olympia — Oregon City — Sa¬ 
lem — San Francisco — Sacramento — Mazatlan — 
Guatemala — San Salvador — P an am a—Aspinw all— 
San Juan de Nicaragua or Greytown — Bluefields 
—Vera Cruz — Mexico — Matamoros — Brownsville 

— Galveston — New Orleans — Mobile — Key West 

— St. Augustin—Savannah—Charlesto n—Wilming¬ 
ton— Richmond — Washington — Baltimore —Phil¬ 
adelphia to New York.—Name towns on or near, the 
coast, you have passed on your right? Guayaquil — 
Quito — Bogota— Kingston — Havana — Port au 
Prince. — On what lake, river, or other waters stand the 
following towns? New Orleans? On Mississippi, 
near its mouth.—Vicksburg? On Mississippi.—Louis¬ 
ville? On Ohio.—Cincinnati? On Ohio.—Milwaukee? On 
L. Michigan. — Chicago? On L. Michigan. — Detroit? 
Cleveland? Buffalo? On L. Erie. — Read from map great 
rivers of N. America (285) — Towns of United States.—What 
towns stand on the following rivers, lakes and other waters? 
On Sacramento R.? Sacramento City (329). — On 
Rio Grande del Norte? Brownsville (United States), oppo¬ 
site Matamoras (Mexico).—On Mississippi? New Orleans 

— Baton Rouge—Vicksburg—Memphis—St. Louis. 

— On Ohio? Louisville—Cincinnati. — On Potomac? 
Washington.—On, or near, Chesapeake B.? Richmond 

— Baltimore.—On Hudson and East Rivers? New York. 

— On L. Erie? Buffalo — Cleveland — Detroit.—On 
L. Michigan? Chicago — Milwaukee. 

(451.) We have now circumnavigated the globe. It 
would be useless to describe more voyages. The teacher 


VOYAGES. 


155 


may lead the pupil, from one point to another, according 
to his discretion (see table of questions (453). We suggest 
a few voyages, particularly for the aid of young persons, 
who, it is believed, will often be found competent teachers 
of this work. 

(452.) Several plans of voyages. — 1. From New 
York, by C. of Good Hope, to Malacca. — 2. Malacca, by 
Red Sea, to London. — 3. London, by C. of Good Hope 
and Calcutta, to Lassa. — 4. Lassa, by Sea of Azof, to 
Moscow and St. Petersburg. — 5. St. Petersburg, by Rei- 
kiavik, to Godtliaab.— 6. Godthaab, by Cape Horn, to Pa¬ 
nama.— 7. Panama to Hobart Town. — 8. Hobart Town, by 
Batavia, to Rangoon.— 9. Rangoon, by Cape Town to C. Horn. 
—10. C. Horn to Honolulu. —11. Honolulu, by Cook Str. 
(New Zealand), to Wellington. —12. Wellington to Manilla. 
—13. Manilla to Yeddo.— 14. Yeddo to Antananarivo.— 
15. Kouka to Massouah. —16. Massouah to Jerusalem.— 
17. Jerusalem to Paris. —19. Paris, by Trieste, Athens, Cairo, 
to Hurrur. — 20. From Hurrur, by Hobart Town, to San Fran¬ 
cisco and Great Salt Lake City, to St. John. — 21. St. John, by 
St. Lawrence and Lakes, to New Orleans.— 22. New 
Orleans, by C. of Good Hope, to Pietermaritzburg. — 23. 
From same to same, by C. Horn. — 24. From C. Horn, 
very shortest line, to Hobart Town, across antarctic con¬ 
tinent and ocean (PI. I. K). — 25. From Hudson Bay, short¬ 
est way, to Tobolsk, across N. Pole (PI. I. L). — 26. New 
Zealand, shortest way, to C. of Good Hope, across ant¬ 
arctic continent (PL I. K). — 27. Shortest way from La 
Guayra to Nishnei-Kolymsk, nearly across N. Pole (PI. I. I). 
— 28. New York (PI. IV. sec. 456), by north-west passage, to 
India. — 29. From San Francisco to Ural Mts., shortest way 
(PI. I. I). — 30. From New York, through Str. Bab-el- 
Mandeb, to Mt. Sinai. — 31. From source of Jordan 
(PI. II. fig. 5), by Dead Sea, G. of Akabah (ah'-kah-bah), 
through Str. of Bab-el-Mandeb, to Mt. Hotham (Australia). 

(453.) Table of questions for each voyage. 

Go from A, (the town you start from), to B, (the 
town you visit. 

'Remark . The teacher to indicate the route; as for 
instance, go to Nishnei - Novgorod, from New York by 
Str. of Gibraltar — or round C. of G. Hope, up Red 


156 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Sea — or up the Persian G.—or west, by Salt Lake city, 
San Francisco and Sandwich Is. 

Point out B (the town you are to visit). 

In what country is that town B ? 

In what direction from A? 

Longitude of A? 

Longitude of B? 

How many degrees does B lie E. or W. of A? 

Latitude of B? 

How many degrees does B lie N. or S. of A? 

Bound C, (the country in which is situated the town 
you are to visit.) 

Remark. This boundary may be sometimes repeated, 
with more or less detail, according to the discretion of 
the teacher, taking in towns, lakes, provinces, gulfs, etc. 

In what zone or zones lies the country C? 

Northernmost parallel of the country? 

Conditions of day, night, climate, etc., in places on 
that northern parallel? 

Southernmost parallel of the country C ? 

Conditions of day, night, climate, etc., on that parallel? 

What towns, countries or places lie on, or near, that 
northernmost parallel, going E. around the globe? 

What towns, countries or places lie on that southern¬ 
most parallel, going E. around the globe; (or, if the 
countries, to and from which, we go, are of small dimen¬ 
sions , the question might be : what countries or places lie 
within the two parallels? 

What waters do you pass through, or near, from A 
to B? (or, when the voyage is between two inland coun¬ 
tries, as from Novgorod to Petropaulovsk, then the question 
will be: AVhat countries — mountains — rivers — seas — lakes 
— interesting regions, etc., do you pass through, or near? 

What countries have you passed, on your left, from 
A to B? 

On your right, from A to B? 

The mouths of what great rivers have you passed, 
on your left, from A to B ? 

On your right, from A to B? 

Name the towns, on or near the coast, you passed 
on your left, from A to B. 


UNKNOWN REGIONS. 


157 


On what sea — lake—river, stand the following towns? 
(the teacher will here select a few of the most prominent 
towns on the way from A to B.) 

Read the rivers of C. (that is the country you are 
visiting. 

Read the towns of C. 

Name the river—sea — lake — on which stands each of 
the following towns: (the teacher will here select the most 
prominent towns of C.) These questions, of course, may be 
multiplied according to circumstances. 

(454.) Unknown Regions (117, 118). — The actual 
surface of the globe is reckoned at about 197 million 
square British statute miles. Of these, 145 million are 
covered by the ocean. A glance at PI. II. will show 
four or five regions, almost unknown to the civilized 
inhabitants of the earth — the N. polar region (3 million 
sq. m.)—the S. polar region (8,500,000 sq. m.)—and a part 
of the African equatorial zone (1,500,000 sq. m.) — total, 
13 millions — that is one - fifteenth part of entire globe’s 
surface. To these may be added the central region of 
Australia, and part of eastern Sahara desert. 

The supposed advantage of reaching those mathematical 
points of the earth’s axis, called the Poles, is, the important 
observations and discoveries which may be made in various 
sciences — among others, Ethnography*, Meteorology00, Bot¬ 
any, Zoology00, Geology, Astronomy, etc. “As a family”, 
says Behm, “will of course know all the rooms of its 
own house, so man, from the very beginning, has been 
inspired with a desire to become acquainted with all the 
lands, oceans, and zones of the planet, assigned to him as 
a dwelling place”. Among the next great events, to be 
looked for in the history of geographical discovery, are the 
arrival of some daring navigator at the point of the N. or 
S. Pole, and the discovery of the sources of the Nile. For 
the instruction of our young voyagers, we add a few 
words upon the latter, and what has been discovered with 
regard to them (May, 1867). 


* Eth-nog'-ra-phy — the science which treats of the so-called 
different races of men. 

(a) Me-te-or-oV-o-gy — of the atmosphere and its phenomena. 

(b) Zo-ol'-o-gy — of animals. 




158 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(455.) Sources of the Nile. — The Nile is formed, 
principally, by the union of two great rivers (Plates II. III. IV) 
— one, (sometimes the Black, but, in English, the Blue Nile, in 
Arabic, Bahr-el-Azrek), has been found to flow through L. 
Dembea, from a marshy district, 6000 feet above the sea, 
in about 10° N. lat. The source of the Nile was then 
supposed to be discovered, (by Bruce), until it became ap¬ 
parent that the other great branch, the White River 
or White Nile, (Bahr-el-Abiad), was the principal one—and 
the attempt to ascertain its origin has cost an immense 
number of lives. The English traveller, Speke (1861—62), 
found a large river flowing, north-westward, out of L. 
Victoria-Nyanza or Ukerewe*, 3500 feet above the sea. 
His reports have rendered it probable , although not abso¬ 
lutely certain (from ocular demonstration), that it connects 
that Lake with L. Albert-Nyanza or (Luta), from which 
latter, it has been demonstrated, by Baker, that the White 
Nile flows. Our Plates II. III. IV. are thus drawn. At 
the E. of L. Victoria-Nyanza, will be observed another 
river and lake. These are the river Assua and the L. 
Baringo. Both, on our map, are drawn only after hear-say — 
that is, the reports of the aborigines, who declare them 
even connected with Victoria-Nyanza. But all this is 
not sufficient to prove that L. Albert-Nyanza and L. 
Victoria-Nyanza are the sources of the White Nile — any 
more than, tracing the Rhone or the Rhine to L. Geneva 
or L. Constance, would show those lakes to be the 
sources of their respective rivers. A large region, E. of 
Victoria-Nyanza, between the Mts. of the Moon and 
that lake, is absolutely untrodden by civilized man. It is 
possible, if not probable — but it has not yet been demon¬ 
strated— that the White Nile originally flows from the 
lofty Snow Mts. He who shall first trace the widening 
course of some petty, bubbling rivulet, from the group of 
Kenia or Kilimandjaro, to L. Victoria-Nyanza, will, at last, 
solve the problem of the source of the Nile, and identify 
that mountain-range with the Jebel-el-Komri, or Mts. of 
the Moon, mentioned by Ptolemy (see remark 275). — The 


* It may be presumed (204) that the world at large will 
generally find it convenient to give this class of names, thus, in 
full, — Lake Victoria Nyanza — however often it may be told 
that the word, lake, is included in the aboriginal name. 



UNKNOWN REGIONS. 


159 


unnamed branch, on the maps, between the White and Blue 
Nile, is the Sobat R. Its course has never been explored. 

(456.) North-West Passage. — We have (182) passed 
from Behring Str. to Str. of Belle Isle, by what is called 
the north-west passage. Let us bestow a few moments 
attention upon this interesting portion of the earth. More 
than 300 years ago (1519), Magellan, a Spaniard, sailed 
from Spain, down Atlantic, discovered the strait bearing 
his name, and crossed Pacific to Ladrone and Philippine Is. 
— while one of his ships continued the voyage, around C. 
of Good Hope, back to Spain. Our globe was thus cir¬ 
cumnavigated, for the first time, and its spherical form 
demonstrated. This voyage suggested the idea of a shorter 
passage to India, around the northern coast of N. America. 
From that time, until our day, the existence of what is 
called the north-west passage , has been one of the problems 
of Geography.—Since the beginning of the 18 th century, 
a succession of daring navigators, whose names, as well as 
those of their patrons, are often inscribed upon the straits, 
islands, etc., have led expeditions into the arctic zone. Behring 
discovered Behring Sea and Strait (1725—28). Cook passed 
beyond the 70th parallel (1778). Mackenzie explored a part 
of this northern coast (1789). The Hamburg whale ship, 
Capt. Ocken, sailed up the Behring Str. to 80 th paral¬ 
lel and reported an open ocean, free from ice, (1815). In 
1815 — 18 Kotzebue demonstrated that no connection 
existed between America and Asia. Parry, Franklin, Ross, 
and others, have penetrated into these regions and sometimes 
passed several years. Sir John Franklin (1845) led an ex¬ 
pedition in search of the north-west passage and never 
returned. It has been since ascertained that his ship was 
locked in by ice, near Beechy I. (PI. IV.) in Wellington 
Canal, near Lancaster Sound, on lat. 75 N. He perished, 
with 105 companions, June 1847. In 1850, the British 
Capt. McClure visited Banks Land, demonstrating it to be an 
island — sailed, from W., through Str. Prince of Wales and 
discovered the mouth of great Melville Sound. His vessel 
was afterward seen, by Lieut. Pirn, coming from the E. 
The fact was thus established, of a water communication, 
between Atlantic and Pacific, by Arctic Ocean. A 
passage runs from Baffin Bay — through Lancaster Sound — 
Barrow Str.—Melville Sound or Str.— then through Prince 


160 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


of Wales Str., or, north-west, through Banks’ Str., some¬ 
times called McClure Str. In 1850 and 1853, two ex¬ 
peditions, under the patronage of Henry Grinnel Esq., 
New York, were headed — one, by Capt. De Haven—the 
other, by Dr. Kane; the latter appeared to confirm the 
report of the Hamburg Capt. Ocken, that the pole is 
surrounded by an open sea. The am. expedition (Hayes, 
May 1861) reached the northernmost known land of our 
planet—81° 35' — and could see along the coast to a point, 
82° 30' — which he named C. Union. There is believed to be a 
second passage, farther to the North, through Banks’ Str. 
and Lancaster Sound; and a southern one, through Hudson 
Str. — Fox Channel — Fury and Hecla Str. — Boothia G. 
to Coronation G. The north-west passage, although thus 
demonstrated to exist, does not appear practicable as a 
better way from Atlantic to India, being nearly always 
blocked up by ice. If, however, Smith Str. or Sound, Kane’s 
Sea, Kennedy Channel should be found an open way, and if 
the reports of Dr. Kane and Capt. Ocken should turn out to 
be correct, that a considerable central area of the arctic 
circle is occupied by a warmer ocean, free from ice — the long 
cherished hope of reaching the pole, may yet be accomplished; 
and, possibly, a shorter way discovered from Greenland, 
London and St. Petersburg to Behring Str. (PI. I. L). 

(456 A.) Remark. 1. There is no idea of abandoning 
polar expeditions. By sledges or ships; by governments 
or private munificence, the North Pole will soon be reached. 
A knowledge of the whole globe’s surface has become a 
necessity of science. We must know every inch of Sahara 
— Australia — New Zealand—New Guinea — Patagonia — 
central Africa — the polar regions, and even the valleys 
of the ocean. 

2. The U. S. Government has granted greater sums 
for geographical works than any government of Europe. 

3. “The Christian missionaries”, says the German Year 
Book, “now scattered over the globe, have rendered import¬ 
ant services to Geography; among them, Hue, Livingston, 
Krapf, etc. Their patient and long-persevering intercourse 
with half-known peoples and tribes, has advanced our knowl¬ 
edge of languages and of the different varieties of men.” 
To this we add: their influence, on the cause of Christian 
civilization, has been far more striking and useful. 



PART IV. 

OUTLINE VIEW OF PROVINCES RIVERS, 
TOWNS, ETC. 

OP 

SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


(PL. V. AND PL. VL B.) 

(457 .) Remark. We have now acquired an idea of natural 
land and water divisions, the names and positions of coun¬ 
tries, towns, mountains, rivers, etc. We have not confined 
ourselves to our own, nor to other civilized countries. We 
have examined, with the same attention, the polar, the 
temperate and the equatorial zones; remote, savage lands, 
and waters scarcely known, as carefully, as those in our 
vicinity. We have taken a bird’s-eye view of the globe’s 
entire surface. Two regions—United States and Europe — 
require more particular study. And, first, Europe. In 
ordey better to understand PI. VI. B., it is proper to 
glance slightly at the most striking territorial changes 
which this portion of the E. Continent has undergone; 
and briefly to review some of the great historical events 
which have caused them. 

(458.) Roman Empire. — At the birth of our 
Saviour, the world may be said to have lived under- 
the scepter of one man , the Roman emperor, Augustus 
Cesar, nephew of Julius Cesar. Following the authority 
of Gibbon, and sometimes using his words, we compress 
a very general account of the extent of his empire. It 
, 11 



162 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


comprehended the fairest part of the earth and the most 
civilized portion of mankind (PI. Ill fig. 5 — also 
Pis. II and III). The northernmost bends of the 
Rhine, Danube and Carpathian Mts., formed its N. E. 
boundary, in Europe. In Asia, its frontier embraced 
Asia Minor, the territory S. of Caucasus, and a region, 
east, reaching to Caspian Sea and Persian G. Ex¬ 
cluding the greater part of Arabia, it took in Palestine, 
the principal part of Egypt, and all the N. coast of 
Africa, known as Barbary States; on the N.W., England 
with Wales and the lowlands of Scotland to the Friths 
of Forth and Clyde (PI. VI). The modern countries, 
standing upon the territory once occupied by the Roman 
Empire, are, Portugal, Spain, France, England, Belgium, 
Prussian Rhine Province, portions of Baden, Wurtem- 
berg and Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, southern prov¬ 
inces of Austria, including Hungary and Transylvania, 
Turkey in Europe and Greece, all Turkey in Asia, 
Egypt, Barca, Tripoli, with Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria and 
Morocco. The excluded adjacent countries are, Ireland, 
part of Scotland, Holland, Prussia, with the North 
German League (N. of the Main), Bohemia, Moravia, 
Galicia, Russia, etc. Arabia, on the S. E., remained also 
unconquered. The whole extent of the Mediterranean 
Sea, its coasts and islands, were comprised within the 
Roman dominion, which was, in breadth, more than 
2000 miles, from the N. European frontier, south to 
Mt. Atlas and tropic of Cancer—in length, more than 
3000 miles, from Atlantic to Euphrates. About as 
large as the United States of America, and nearly 
between the same parallels, it was situated in the finest 
part of the temperate zone, and, like the previous five 
consecutive world empires (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, 
Persia and Greece or Macedonia), it comprehended, 
within its boundaries, that remarkable country, Palestine 
“which”, says Gibbon, “will live for ever in the mem¬ 
ory of mankind, as, from its narrow limits, has issued 
forth the religion, adopted by all the civilized nations 
of the earth”. That country, less than 200 miles long. 


i 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


163 


by about 75 miles broad, forms, in our day, several 
Turkish pashalics, at the E. extremity of Mediterranean. 
Fig. 5. PI. II. gives its “narrow limits”, with lake Ti¬ 
berias, river Jordan and Dead Sea. 

No inferior animal has ever aspired to universal 
dominion over its fellow beasts. But, to use again 
the words of Gibbon, “the ambitious desire of subduing 
the earth ” has been the favorite dream of great con¬ 
querors. Nebucadnezzar, Xerxes, Alexander, Cesar, 
Charlemagne, Napoleon — each, in his turn, has been 
dazzled by a splendid vision of “all the kingdoms of 
the world and the glory of them”. During nearly a 
hundred years, Augustus and his successors the 
emperors Nerva, Trajan, two Antonines, etc. — may be 
said to have, in some degree, attained this coveted 
prize. The transitory heathen kingdom, which man 
had established, “by the might of his power and for 
the honor of his majesty”—“the city and tower whose 
top was to reach unto heaven”^- had risen to its 
culminating point, at the moment, when a greater than 
man in the form of a friendless infant, scarcely ad¬ 
mitted into the stable of a tavern, appeared upon the 
earth, to lay the everlasting foundation of the kingdom 
of God. This impressive antithesis is carried out during 
the whole life of our Redeemer, and, particularly, in his 
death. While the pure and lowly Jesus, the Savior of the 
world, who had never committed a sin, was extended 
on the cross, an atonement for mankind—Tiberias, the 
emperor of this present world, marked by the vilest 
vices and the basest qualities, was closing his life in 
the luxurious island of Caprea, sunk in infamous, 
disgusting debaucheries; and, by “his infernal machina¬ 
tions and crimes, exposing the life, the fortune and the 
honor of every Roman citizen”. 

(459.) Fall of the Roman Empire. — The 

Roman Empire (1) broke to pieces in the 4th century. 
The Persians, the Scythians, the Goths and other bar¬ 
barians, attacked it at every point. Out of its immense 

11 * 


164 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


ruins, have risen the modern states of Europe. It is a 
singular circumstance, however, that it did not cease to 
have a political representative, from the time of 
Augustus to that of Napoleon I; and the plan of reviv¬ 
ing it, in more than all its ancient power and glory, 
has never been permanently abandoned. This is one 
of the secrets of history. 

(460.) Germanic or Holy Roman Empire. —* 

Among the various political organisations, built upon 
the ruins of Rome, was Germany. Charlemagne was 
crowned, at Rome, by the Pope, Emperor of the West, 
or Emperor of the Romans (A. D. 800). His suc¬ 
cessors kept up this title about 160 years (A. D. 962), 
when it vested in the emperor of Germany, thenceforth 
designated, monarch of the Holy Roman Empire. The 
second head was added to the eagle, in order to 
denote the union of the empires of Germany and Rome. 
From this time, and through the subsequent period of 
a thousand years, the Empire of Germany was styled, 
the Holy Roman Empire. At the breaking out of the 
great french revolution (1789), its territories were di¬ 
vided into 10 Circles (PI. V. A. Fig. 1). 

(461.) French Revolution — Napoleon I. — 

Under the reign of Louis XV, king of France, the 
vices of the king and court, the oppressions of the 
people, the general spread of infidelity, etc., produced a 
revolution, the most terrific recorded by history. One 
might almost infer that the great crises of human affairs 
grow, fn intensity, like the plutonic irruptions of our 
planet (281). The outbreak reached its height under 
Louis XVI. who, with his queen, was beheaded. It 
deluged France with the blood of the scaffold, and 
devastated Europe with wars. Out of the stormy 
billows of these political disorders, rose that young 
officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the most remark¬ 
able men, and the greatest soldier, of any age, whose 
brilliant military genius, and unbounded ambition, nearly 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


165 


succeeded in reducing Europe, and the adjacent parts 
of Asia and Africa, under his scepter; and in thus 
reviving the magnificent empire of the Cesars. By his 
victories over Austria (Marengo, 14. June, 1800,— 
Austerlitz, 2. Dec., 1805) and over Prussia (Jena, 
14. Oct., 1806) he overturned the old Germanic or 
Holy Roman Empire, already tottering into decay. He 
created, for his brother Jerome, a new kingdom, 
Westphalia; and raised, other members of the Germanic 
Confederation, into independent sovereigns, united by a 
league, called the Confederation of the Rhine. Under 
these circumstances, the German Emperor, Francis II, 
by a communication (Aug. 6, 1809) addressed to the 
great Powers of Europe, officially renounced the title of 
Emperor of Germany and of the Holy Roman Empire , 
which his ancestors had worn for a thousand years, 
and assumed the title, Emperor of Austria. “The 
Emperor of Germany” says Alison, in his History of 
Europe, “thus ceased to be the representative of the 
empire of the Cesars”. Napoleon had already ascended 
to this lofty pre-eminence. He had been crowned 
Emperor of France, by the Pope, (Dec. 2, 1804). 
He then exacted that he should be crowned, again, 
King of Italy and Rome, with the iron crown of 
Charlemagne, as the new representative of the empire 
of the Cesars, and, consequently, a monarch higher 
than all the other monarchs of the earth. The cere¬ 
mony took place at Milan (1805). The haughty con¬ 
queror seized the crown and placed it upon his own 
head, thus intimating that he reigned by his own 
power; at the same time, uttering the words: (< God has 
given it to me. Beware who touches it!” The Roman States 
were annexed to France, and the heir apparent of the 
french throne was invested with the title of King of Rome. 

(462.) Treaties of Vienna. — The fall of Napo¬ 
leon Bonaparte was more sudden even than his rise. 
His splendid fabric was dashed to pieces at Moscow, 
Leipsic and Waterloo; and he was confined at St. 


166 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


Helena, a rock in the Atlantic, where he died a 
broken-hearted prisoner (1821). The victorious mon- 
archs of Europe met, by thier representatives, in a 
Congress at Vienna (1815), and, by those celebrated 
documents, called the Treaties of Vienna, gave, to the 
European countries, the political frontiers which, with 
some exceptions, continued to be their limits until 1866. 

(463.) Changes since Treaties of Vienna. — 

Italy, by these treaties, was occupied by seven 
independent monarchies or states, (PI. V. B. fig. 2. 
— sec. 482), while the beautiful plains of Lom¬ 
bardy and Venice, in northern Italy, were given to 
the then triumphant Austria. Belgium and Holland 
were united into one kingdom; and Greece was left 
under the Turkish scepter. By the revolution of 
1830, Belgium was separated from Holland and erected 
into an independent kingdom; and the Italian war of 
1859, (in which France and Sardinia, by the victories 
of Magenta and Solferino, drove Austria entirely out 
of Italy) erected the whole Italian Peninsula into one 
kingdom and, finally, brought Lombardy (1859) and 
then Venice (1866) under the scepter of Victor Eman¬ 
uel. A very small region was left with the name 
of Papal Territory (PI. VI. B) which the now united and 
powerful people of Italy desire to incorporate as the 
capital of their kingdom. To these changes, must be 
added the revolution, by which Greece (1829) threw off 
the Turkish yoke; the elevation of the Turkish provinces, 
Moldavia and Wallachia (known as the Principalities of 
the Danube), to the rank of a nation (1866); and, 
greatest of all, the resurrection of Napoleonism (Dec. 
2, 1851), when Louis Bonaparte (Napoleon III.) seized 
the imperial sceptre; thus overthrowing the public law 
of Europe, as founded on the treaties of Vienna. 

(464.) Germanic Confederation from 1815 to 

1866. — By the treaties of Vienna (1815) Germany 
was reconstructed in such a way as to consist of 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


167 


38 states, and, with few essential changes, it so re¬ 
mained till 1866, at which time, three had been merged 
into others, leaving only 35. Holland was a member 
of the Confederation, for two of her provinces—Luxem¬ 
burg and Limburg; Denmark, also, for Holstein, 
with Lauenburg.' The Germanic Confederation (marked 
by a red line PI. VI. B) then extended from North 
Sea and Baltic, to Adriatic. It was bounded, N. by 
North Sea, Denmark (Schleswig), and Baltic; E. by 
non-German Prussia, Russia, and non-German 
Austria; S. by Adriatic, Venetia and Switzerland; 
W. by Venetia, Lombardy, Switzerland, France, Bel¬ 
gium and Holland. (R. these boundaries again from 
PI. V. A). The states of the Confederation were 
•distinguished by 8 different forms of Government, 
namely: 1 Empire, 5 Kingdoms (exclusive of Denmark 
and Holland), 7 Grand Duchies, 9 Principalities, 
1 Electorate, 1 Landgraviate, and 4 Free Cities. A 
glance at PI. V. A, will, in a few moments, acquaint 
the attentive student with the names, relative size 
and position of the German States (Pop. 46 millions). 
It was of this Plate that Alex. v. Humboldt said: 
“Perhaps no mapever did make Germany so clear.” 

(465.) List of German States before 1866 — 

One Empire. — Austria. 

Five kingdoms . — Prussia — Saxony — Bavaria 

— W urtemberg — Hanover. 

Seven Grand-Duchies. — Baden — Hesse-D arm- 
stadt — Luxemburg with Limburg—Oldenburg 

— Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Sliway-reen') — Meek - 
lenburg-Strelitz (straylitz) — Saxe-Weimar (wl-mar). 

Seven Duchies. — Nassau — Brunswick — Hol¬ 
stein, with Lauenburg — Anhalt (formerly Duchies 
of Bernburg, Koethen (curten), and Dessau) — Saxe- 
Altenburg — Saxe-Meiningen — Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha. 

Nine Principalities. — Reuss-Greitz (Itze) — 
Reuss-Schleitz (Ttze) — Sell war tzburg-Rudolstadt 


168 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


— Schwartzburg-Sondershausen — Schaumburg' 
Lippe—Lippe-Detmold —W aldeck — Hohenzol- 
lern — Lichtenstein (lik'-ten-stine), on the eastern 
frontier of Switzerland. 

One Electorate. — Hesse-Cassel. 

One Markgraviate. — Hesse-Homburg (near 
Frankfort — very small). 

Four Free Manse Towns. — Frankfort-on-the- 
Main (seat of the Germanic Diet) — Bremen — Ham¬ 
burg—Lubeck. 

(466.) Thuringian States. — This name is 
given to the following (PI. V. A): G. D. Sax e-Wei¬ 
mar—D. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha—D. Saxe-Meinin- 
gen—D. Saxe-Altenburg—P. Sch wa rtzburg - 
Rudolstadt — P. Schwartzburg-Sondershausen. 

(467.) Hanse Towns — called also the Hans a, 
and Hanseatic League. In the Middle Ages, Ger¬ 
many, and the neighboring seas, were infested with 
tyrannical feudal chiefs, banditti, pirates, etc. Many 
towns, among others those we have mentioned, entered 
into a commercial alliance for mutual defence, under 
this name. The number of towns is said to have 
once amounted to 85. The alliance was dissolved 
about 200 years ago; but Hamburg, Bremen', Lubeck 
and Frankfort-on-the-Main, still continued in some¬ 
what similar relations, and were called the free Han¬ 
seatic cities of the Germanic Confederation. 

(468.) Prussia, with North German League, 
after civil war 1866. — Plate Y. A. and YI.B. show 
Prussia before this war. Her disjointed territory lay, it 
has been said, like a pair of garters, on a table. As it 
consisted of several fragments,, it might better be likened 
to a plate fallen upon the floor, and broken to pieces. 
Between the two provinces, Westphalia and Rhine Pr. and 
the rest of her territory, nearly all the small German States 
intervened; so that, in this respect, she could be re- 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


169 

garded but as a very weak Power. Now mark the 
changes after the war (PI. V. B). Five of the intervening 
States — one of them, a considerable kingdom — have 
been incorporated into her territory, namely: Kgd. 
Hanover — Electorate Hesse-Cassel — D. Nassau 

— Free City Frankfort-on-tli e-Main, and Land- 
graviate Hesse-IIomburg. Not only D. Hol¬ 
stein, but the adjacent Danish D. Schleswig are. 
annexed. Twelve States or Free Cities, beside those 
called Thuringian States, if not incorporated, at 
least have been induced to enter into close subordinate 
relations with her, under the name of North German 
League. They lie wholly, or in part, enclosed within 
her territory, and are: Kgd. Saxony — G. D. Meck- 
lenburg-Sch werin — G. D. Meeklenburg-Strelitz 

— G. D. Oldenburg — Northern half of G. D. Plesse- 
Darmstadt — D. Brunswick — D. Anhalt — P. 
Lippe — P. Waldeck — Thuringian States (466) 
including the adjoining states ofReuss— Free Cities 
Hamburg—-Bremen — Lubeck. 

It requires only a glance at the maps to per¬ 
ceive the consequent aggrandizement of Prussia. 
Situated in the center of Europe — with a population of 
29 millions — a compact territory — an unbroken frontier 
on every side — a perfect military organisation — 
a largely increased coast-line both on Baltic and 
North Seas—Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, converted 
almost into Prussian ports — she has become one of the 
greatest Powers of the world. 

The rest of the states, members of the Germanic 
Confederation before 1866, and having opposed Prussia 
in the war, namely, G. D. Baden, kgd. Wurtemberg, 
kgd. Bavaria, southern half of G. D. Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, i. e., the half S. of River Main, and P. Lich 
tenstein, do not form part of North German League. 
But they have entered into treaties, offensive and de¬ 
fensive, with the king of Prussia, stipulating, in case 
of war, to invest hiih with the command of their 
troops. We may well presume that these political ar- 


170 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


rangements are not permanent. It is necessary, however, 
that they should be understood by every attentive ob¬ 
server. While Prussia has risen to this great political pre¬ 
eminence, Austria has suffered a series of misfortunes 
which have threatened almost her existence. By the 
Italian war of 1859 she lost Lombardy; by the war 
of 1866, the territory of Venetia; and she was compelled 
to retire before the supremacy of Prussia as a German 
Power. This is not the place to point out the prob¬ 
able consequences of these great changes. Many believe 
that Austria has still vitality and allies enough to 
procure indemnification for her losses, on her south¬ 
eastern frontier (PI. VI. B.); thus precipitating the 
banishment of the Ottoman Power from Europe; and 
rendering the dreaded Turkish question, not only 
more urgent, but more complicated. 


COUNTRIES AND PROVINCES OF SOUTH¬ 
WESTERN EUROPE. 


(469.) Our purpose in presenting PI. V. A. and 
B. and PI. VI. B. is:—1. To give the limits of the 
German States (PI. V. A), as they existed from 1815 
till 1866. 2. A view of the reconstructed Germany, as 
far as it has proceeded, since the dissolution of the 
Germanic Confederation. 3. A somewhat nearer view 
of the rivers, towns and exterior waters of Great 
Britain and Ireland. 4. The great historical provinces 
of Portugal, Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Roumania, 
Turkey in Europe, Greece, Italy, and Switzerland; with 
a nearer view of their towns, and rivers, including 
Belgium and Holland. In the wars which have already 
taken place, and those which may be hereafter expected, 
territorial changes are frequently made, are often the 
objects of the wars, and are best understood by those 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


171 


who have studied the names, relative positions, and 
antecedents of historical provinces . Thus, 1860, after 
the Italian war, France annexed the Italian provinces 
of Savoy and Nice, by the consent, most reluctantly 
extorted, of the .government of Italy, and not without 
awakening a deep feeling of resentment, on the part of the 
Italian nation; for Savoy is the key to Italy. At 
the same time, Italy took Lombardy from Austria. One 
of the first results of the late civil war in Germany, 
was the cession of Venetia to the king of Italy. The 
erection of the two provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia, 
into what may be called an independent kingdom, 
seems to be the forerunner of greater changes in the 
Ottoman Empire. The province of Luxemburg — that 
portion of Holland, for which its sovereign was member 
of the Germanic Confederation till 1866 — till the question 
was settled by a european Conference (London, May, 1867) 
threatened to become the occasion of a general war. It 
would be superfluous to give the provinces of all countries; 
but it is deemed important that the intelligent young 
American student should have a clear view of the sub¬ 
divisions of this part of the world, whose great approach¬ 
ing changes attract the attention of thinking men. 

(470.) Provinces of Portugal. — Minho — 
Tras-os-Montes — Beira —Es tremad u ra — A1 em- 
tejo — Algarve. — Insular Provinces : Azores — Ma- 
d eiras. 

Remark . Of Portugal, Spain, France, and Turkey, 
we give the names of historical provinces still retained 
in those countries, although these ancient divisions, for 
administrative purposes, have been subdivided into 
departments, etc. (in Turkey, into eyalets or pashalics). 

(471.) Provinces of Spain. — On Atlantic: An¬ 
dalusia — Galicia — Asturias — Old Castile — 
Basque Provinces (Biscaya, Guipuzcoa, Alava) 

— On France: Bas q ue Pro vinces again—Navarre 

— Aragon — Catalonia. — On Mediterranean: Cata- 


172 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


Ionia again — Valencia — Murcia — Granada — 
Andalusia again — On Portugal: Andalusia again — 
Estremadura — Leon. — Central Province: New Cas¬ 
tile (Madrid). — Insular Provinces: Balearic Is.— 
Canary Is. 

(472.) Basques Provinces. — This term is 
omitted in the Plate, in order to avoid the confusion 
of crowded names. The three small provinces, com¬ 
prehended under it, are Biscaya or Vizcaya 

— Guipuzcoa — and A lav a; The Basques are cel¬ 
ebrated for their courage and energy, and form the 
best soldiers and sailors of Spain. They boast that, 
not only no Arab steed has ever stamped upon their 
soil, but that, though the most ancient representatives of 
the Spanish race, neither Carthaginian, Roman, Goth 
nor French, has ever subdued them, or even corrupted 
their language, which they declare to be that used by 
Adam and Eve in Paradise. In the 13 th century, they 
voluntarily became subjects of the Queen of Castile, 
reserving, however, many inviolable rights. They enjoy 
a considerable independence, a diet, judiciary, laws and 
a representation of their own. In fact they form a kind 
of independent government. For 1300 years, their 
parliament has been held near an old oak at Vizcaya. 

(473.) Provinces of France. — On English 
Channel: Brittany or Bretagne — Normandy — 
Picardy — Artois — Flanders. — On Belgium and 
Germany: Flanders (again)—Champagne—Lor¬ 
raine— Alsace. — On Switzerland: Franche-Comte 

— Burgundy ( Bourgogne ) — Savoy. — On Italy: 
Savoy (again) — Dauphine — Provence — Nice — 
On Mediterranean Sea: Provence (again) — Langue¬ 
doc — Roussillon — I. of Corsica. — On Spain: 
Roussillion (again) — Foix — Gascony — Bearn. 

— On Bay of Biscay: Gascony (again) — Guienne 

— Saintonge — Poitou with Vendee. — Central Prov¬ 
inces: Anjou — Maine — Orleanais — Isle de 


SOUTH WESTERN EUROPE. 


173 


France (Paris) — Nivernais — Bourbonnais — Ly¬ 
onnais — Auvergne — Limousin — Angoumais — 
La Marche — Berry — Tourraine. — 

(474.) Provinces of Prussia (PI. V. A) — may, 
at present, be divided into two classes, namely, the 
9 original provinces before 1866 — and the 7 prov¬ 
inces subsequently annexed. Nine original provinces: 
Pomerania—West and East Prussia — Posen 
(Prussian Poland) — Silesia (Prussian) — Saxony 
(Prussian) — Brandenburg —Westphalia — Rhine 
Province —Hohenzollern — the latter added at 
a later period, quite isolated in the S. of Germany. 
Seven provinces subsequently annexed: K g d m. Hanover 

— Electorate Hesse-Cassel—Free territory and 
city of Frankfurt-on-the-Main — D. Nassau — 
Landgraviate Hesse-Homburg — German Duchy 
Holstein with Lauenburg — Danish Duchy 
Schleswig. (Now see PI. V. B). 

(475.) Provinces of Austria (PI. V. A and B 
and Pl. VI. B) — before 1859 might be grouped as 
follows: 1. German provinces. 2. Non-German prov¬ 
inces. 3. Italian provinces. German provinces: Bohe¬ 
mia— Austrian Silesia — Moravia — Upper Aus¬ 
tria — Lower Austria — Styria — Salzburg — 
Tyrol with Vorarlberg—Carintliia — Carniola 
(with Istria, Goritzia, and the town and territory of 
Trieste).— Non-German provinces: Galicia with 
Cracow—Hungary with Banat — Bukowina — 
Transylvania — Slavonia — Croatia — Military 
Frontier — Dalmatia. — Italian provinces: Lom¬ 
bardy and Venetia (the latter two now ceded to 
Italy). 

(476.) Coast Land — Littorale —Kgd. Illyria. 

— These terms were once, and are sometimes yet, 
applied, to the Duchies of Carniola, Carinthia, 
Istria, etc., with the town and territory of Trieste. 


174 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


(477.) Magyar Provinces. — Hungary and 
Transylvania are so called. 

Remark. The subdivisions of Austria, since the revo¬ 
lution of 1848, have undergone so many changes that, says 
Daniel, “they are enough to drive any geographer to des¬ 
peration.” 

(478.) Provinces of Roumania. — Valakhia 

— Moldavia. 

(479.) Provinces of Turkey in Europe. — 

Bosnia with Turkish Croatia and Herzegovina 

— Servia — Bulgaria with Dobrodja — Roumelia 
(ancient Macedonia and Thracia) — Albania with 
Thessaly — Montenegro—Jezayr (Dschesair), or 
the “Islands” — Candia or Crete. 

Remark. The existence of Turkey in Europe appears 
drawing to a close. Many of its nominal provinces are 
in fact independent — particularly Egypt. 

(480.) Provinces of Greece. — Roumelia — 
Morea or Peloponnesus — Ionian Islands — Gre¬ 
cian Archipelago. 

Remark. — 1. — That part of present kingdom of 
Greece, called Rumelia, was, under the Turkish govern¬ 
ment, Livadia; among the ancient Greeks, Hellas. It is 
not necessary here to give the administrative subdivisions. 

2. — The Archipelago, or islands in the Aegean Sea, 
between the mainland of Greece and Asia Minor, are, on 
the map, distinguished, from the Turkish islands, by a red 
line. PI. VI. B. 

(481.) Cyclades — Sporades. — Observe (PI. VI. 
B.) a group of islands, lying on the east coast of 
Greece, somewhat in parallel lines. They may be re¬ 
garded as insular prolongations of Euboea and Ru¬ 
melia. Among them are: Delos, Syra. They are 
called the Cyclades (sik'-la-deez), from a Greek word, a 
circle — because they closely encircle the little I. of 
Delos. The rest of the islands of the Archipelago, 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


175 


both grecian and turkisb, are called the Sporades (spor'- 
a-deez), from a Greek word, scattered —because they 
lie scattered around the Cyclades. Among them are: 
Euboea or Negropont, Hydra, Aegina, etc. 

(482.) Subdi-visi ons of Italy from 1815 to 
1859 (PI. V. B. fig. 2). — Kgdm. Sardinia (includ¬ 
ing D. Savoy, P. Piedmont, D. Genoa, County 
Nice, and I. of Sardinia) — D. Parma — D. Modena 

— D. Lucca — G. D. Tuscany — Papal States, 
enclosing the little rep. San Marino — Kgdm. Naples 
with Sicily. The Lombardo-Venetian kingdom formed 
part of Austria. 

(483.) Present P rovinces of kingdom Italy 
(PI. VI. B). — Piedmont — Lombardy—Venetia 

— Emilia— Marca—Umbria—Tuscany — Naples 
or Lower Italy—I. of Sicily — I. of Sardinia. 

Remark. The Papal Territory has not yet (April 
1867) been included among the provinces of Italy. 

(484.) Cantons of Switzerland (PI. V. B). — 

Switzerland consists of 22 cantons — french, german and 
italian. — Bern — Soleure (so-lur') — Basel — Aargau 

— Zurich (zu'-rik) — Schaffhausen — Thurgau 
(toor'-gow) — St. Gall — Appenzell — Grisons — 
Ticino (te-chee'-no) — Valais — Geneva — Vaud 
(vo) — Neufchatel (nush - ah - tel') — Freyburg (fri'- 
boorg) — Lucerne (lu-sern')— Zug (zoog) — Schwytz 
(shweetz) — G1 a r u s (glar'-roos) — U r i (u'- ree) — U n t e r- 
walden. 

Remark. Where names of town and canton are iden¬ 
tical, the former, alone, is sometimes given. 


RIVERS AND TOWNS OF SOUTH-WESTERN 
EUROPE. 

(PL. VI. B.) 

(485.) Chief Rivers of England. — Thames 
— Severn with Upper and Lower Avon — Mersey 


176 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


— Eden —Tyne — Humber, with its affluents Ouse 
(ooz) and Trent — Great Ouse. 

(486.) Chief Towns of England and Wales.— 

We first name some great sea and riverports. London — 
Dover — Brighton — Portsmouth — Southampton 

— Cowes — Exeter — Plymouth — Falmouth — 
Bristol — Swansea and P em broke (Wales) — Chester 
—Liverpool—Lancaster—Carlisle—N ewcastle- 
upon-Tyne — Sunderland — Hull — Yarmouth — 
Colchester. Now we name some of the chief 
interior towns. Bradford — Leeds—York— Bolton 

— Manchester — Sheffield — Lincoln — Shrews¬ 
bury— Derby— Nottingham —Wolverhampton — 
Birmingham — Leicester — Norwich — Worcester 
(Woo'ster) — Oxford—Cambridge—Bath—Canter¬ 
bury — Merthyr - Tydvil (Wales). Towns on 
the following rivers, beginning at the source. On 
Thames : Oxford — London — Greenwich (cele¬ 
brated for its royal observatory, from which longitude 
is often measured). On Severn: Shrewsbury — 
Worcester. On Upper Avon: Stratford (the birthplace 
of Shakspeare, who is therefore often called the Swan of 
Avon). On Mersey: Manchester—Liverpool. On 
Eden: Carlisle. On Tyne: Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
On Humber and its affluents Ouse and Trent: Hull — 
York — Leeds, (for Wales, see 521 A.) 

(487.) Chief Rivers of Scotland. —Tweed — 
Forth — Tay— Dee — Ness — Clyde. 

(488.) Chief Towns of Scotland. — Berwick 

— Edinburgh — Dundee—Aberdeen — Inverness 

— Paislay — Glasgow — Dumbarton. What towns 
lie on the following rivers? On Tweed? Berwick. On 
Forth? Edinburgh. On Tay? Perth — Dundee. On 
Dee? Aberdeen. On Ness? Inverness. On Clyde? 
Paisley — Glasgow — Dumbarton. 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


177 


(489.) Chief Rivers of Ireland. — Liffey with 
Dublin Bay— S u i r (shure) with Water ford Harbor 

— Black water — Lee — Shannon — Corrib (River 
and Lake) with Galway (gawk-way) Bay. 

(490.) C h ief Towns of Ireland. — Sea and river- 
ports: Dublin — Waterford —Cork with Queens¬ 
town — Limerick — Galway — Londonderry — 
Belfast. — Interior towns: Tipperary — Killarney. 

(491.) Rivers of European Continent. — We 

review these rivers, adding some of the more important, 
not previously named, for the purpose of studying their 
relations to the countries and towns (PI. VI. B). Into 
Atlantic: Guadalquivir — Guadiana — Tagus — 
Douro — Minho. — Bay of Biscay: Gironde (with 
Dordogne and Garonne) — Loire. English Channel: 

— Seine. — North Sea: Sheldt (Sclield) — Meuse or 
Maas (with its mouths) — now PI. V. A and B — 
Rhine (with its 4 principal branches — right bank: 
Neckar — Main; left bank: Aar — Moselle)—Weser 

— Elbe (with its branches Havel and Spree).— 
Baltic: Oder — Vistula — Niemen — (now PI. II) 
Duna —Neva •—Tornea. — White Sea: D wina. Arctic 
Ocean: Petchora.— Caspian Sea: Ural—Volga.— 
Sea of Azof: Don. — Black Sea: Dnieper—(PI. VI.) 
Dniester — Danube, (with its branches — left bank: 
Theiss (tlce) and Pruth (proof); right bank: Isar 
— Inn —Drave and Save).— Adriatic: Po. — Tyrrhenian 
or Tuscan Sea: Tiber— Arno. — G. of Lions: Rhone 
(with its branch Saone (sown). — Mediterranean: Ebro. 

(492.) Remark. 1. The Isar is the national river of 
Bavaria, having in all times, from its source to its mouth, 
belonged to the Bavarians. Its banks are rich in fruit 
and its basin is the principal seat of the old Bavarian 
population. 

2. As the teacher reads the three next sections, very 
slowly, the pupil will follow each place on the proper 
map or maps. 


12 


178 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


(493.) The Rhine — sometimes called by the 
Germans Father or King Rhine, is often said to 
spring from three small streams, the Vorder Rhine 
— the Hinter Rhine and the Middle Rhine. In 
reality it originates in a large number of mountain- 
torrents, each bearing its name. It is the “highest 
born” of the German streams, rising in the Swiss 
Alps, near Mount St. Gothard, about 7000 feet above 
the sea. It is more than 800 miles long, and its 
depth varies from 20 to 50 feet. It flows, after 
various bends, in a N. W. direction, into North Sea. — 
Examine PI. V. B. and see what states or territories 
it passes through or between. After traversing a part 
of Switzerland, it forms, with the broad Lake Con¬ 
stance, into which it expands, the boundary line between 
Switzerland, on the one side, and Austria, Bavaria, 
AVurtemberg and Baden, on the other. Then, flowing 
directly N., it forms the boundary line between France 
and Baden; thence, intersecting several small German 
States, it sweeps through the Prussian Rhine-Province 
and Holland, pouring its waters into North Sea, 
through a number of broad arms or estuaries which 
enclose an extensive delta. The River Meuse or 
Maas, unites its waters with those of the Rhine, in this 
part of its course; and, strange to say, the principal 
channels of entrance to the Rhine bear the name of 
the ‘‘mouths of the Meuse”; —while the Rhine preserves 
its name only in an insignificant stream, called the 
Old Rhine, which reaches the sea near Leyden. It 
is navigable, for tolerably large vessels, as far up as 
Strasburg; for smaller steamers .as high as Basel; and 
boats ascend some distance higher, to Schaff hausen. 
No German river is so much visited by tourists. In 
Switzerland, its scenery is sublime. Its impetuous 
waters rush through the valley of the Rhine, surrounded 
by the most picturesque crags and lofty alpine peaks. 
Between Mayence (or Mainz) and Cologne, in the Pr. 
Rhine Province, the scenery is particulary celebrated. 
Beautiful mountains and rocks crowd around the river 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


179 


shores, which are scattered with rich vineyards, towns, 
valleys, churches, etc. Sometimes, the mountains rise 
in an amphitheatre, capped with the ruins of ancient 
towers and castles, connected with which are the most 
romantic legends and interesting, historical associations. 
At other points, they open into delicious valleys, through 
which numerous affluents flow, swelling the waters of the 
parent river. The navigation of the Rhine is of great 
and increasing importance. Perhaps no river is more 
closely connected with the political state of Europe. 
The French appear to consider it their natural boundary. 
Upon this point there is a deep susceptibility on the 
part both of the German and French nations. This 
river was first made known to the civilized world by 
Julius Cesar, who twice crossed it in his wars with 
the Germans. 

(494.) The Danube — the second in magnitude 
among european rivers — rises in Baden, one of 
its sources being enclosed within the court of a castle, 
in the small town of Donaueschingen (do'now-esh'ing-en). 
It thence flows through Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Austria, 
Roumania and Turkey; becomes part of the boundary 
line between the two latter States; and enters the 
Black Sea by several channels, forming a large marshy 
delta. Near its mouth, in consequence of sand-banks 
and other obstacles, there are difficulties in the navi¬ 
gation, which have occasioned many disputes between 
Turkey and Russia. The region, on the right side of 
the Danube, called the Dobrodja —a pestilential 
trac t _ has recently been the seat of Russian and 
Turkish warfare. The scenery is highly diversified. 
Sometimes the river rolls along among beautiful 
eminences, like those of the Rhine, crowned with 
picturesque ruins— sometimes it washes the rocky angles 
of precipices and mountains — sometimes, in many 
circuits, meanders over vast level plains. Here, it is 
divided into numerous channels, enclosing marshy 
islands —there (as on the borders of Hungary and 

12 * 


180 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


Roumania, at the point called the “Iron Gate”), it 
rushes, with deafening noise, through a deep defile, 
breaking into a series of minor cataracts. Sometimes 
narrow — sometimes wide — its movement is now 
dangerously rapid — now measured and slow. It is, 
nevertheless, navigable through the greater part of its 
course, though the navigation is often obstructed by 
rocks, shoals, and whirlpools. It has been described, 
by a German writer, Biffard, to resemble “a beautiful, 
intelligent, coquettish woman, full of changes and 
contradictions. Now, she advances silently, as if lost 
in reverie — now, she overflows with sparkling mirth. 
At one moment, she is full of humors and caprices — 
at another, she proceeds with dignity and reflection. 
But have a care!—trust her not! Where she is the 
least deep to-day, to-morrow, we cannot fathom her; 
and, after years of attentive examination, we know as 
little of her real character, as in the first hour of our 
acquaintance”. 

The limits of this work do not permit an ex¬ 
amination into the political importance of the Danube. 
From various circumstances,it has been, and still is, closely 
connected with the interests of Europe. “While the 
other great rivers”, says the American Cyclopaedia, 
“flowing in a northerly or southerly direction, formed 
barriers against the invasions of savage nations, the 
Danube, on the contrary, served as a highway from 
East to West. Hence, the ebb and flow of the great 
migration of nations, subsequent to the downfall of the 
Roman Empire, were the strongest in the basin of the 
Danube, and, for long centuries, the fate of European 
civilization depended on the contest of races, in that 
portion of the continent.” 

(495.) The Main (PI. V. A and B). — We have de¬ 
parted from our general plan in giving a more detailed 
account of the Rhine and the Danube, because of the 
commercial, historical and political importance of those 
streams. They are examples of rivers by the influences of 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


181 


which Europe has taken the lead in civilization. The 
River Main must not be passed over without a few 
words. It is the most considerable branch of the 
Rhine, flowing, for many miles, through a mountainous 
country, which would otherwise be, in a great degree, 
closed to commerce and ideas. It opens a communi¬ 
cation with the south-western sources of the Weser; 
and, what gives it a still higher value, connects the 
basins of the Elbe, the Rhine, the Neckar and the 
Danube. By its westerly course, and connection with 
the Rhine, it also opens central Europe to the N., the 
W. and the E. Moreover, Germany is divided by it into 
N. and S. Germany. It has its source in Bavaria. 
Traversing the northern portion of that kingdom, it 
grazes the southern frontier of Hesse-Cassel, intersects 
the territory of Frankfort, leaving the city of Frank¬ 
fort on its right or north bank, cuts the G. D. Hesse- 
Darmstadt into two, almost equal, parts; and then, 
advancing between the southern part of Hesse-Darm¬ 
stadt and the D. Nassau, enters^ the Rhine at Mainz 
(or Mayence). Now remark the southern limits of the 
new North German League, on PI. V. B, and we see 
an instance of the influence which a river may exercise 
on political events, arresting the advance of conquering 
armies and determining, at least for a time, the extent 
of territories. The south limits of the new N. German 
League nearly follow the course of that river. Thus 
may be explained the fact that Germany has been 
broken into two parts. The new and greatly strength¬ 
ened Prussia had reason to believe she would not be 
permitted to pass below the Main, and become sole 
possessor of that important international highway. 
Hence, the south limits of the Prussian League, following 
the course of the Main, take in only the Thuringian 
States — Hesse-Cassel, the northern half of Hesse- 
Darmstadt and Nassau—leaving out Baden, the southern 
half of Hesse-Darmstadt, Wurtemberg and Bavaria. It 
may be added that, in territorial arrangements, the 
lower portion of the river has generally been separated 


182 


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from the upper. Segments of the Rhine and the 
Danube formed boundary lines of the old Roman 
Empire, whose frontiers intersected the Main. Distance, 
in a direct line, from source to mouth, about 157 miles; 
but its windings, more peculiar and extensive than those 
of any other German river, measure 3G0 miles. 

(496.) Towns of Portugal. — Seaports: Oporto 

— Lisbon — Setubal, or St. Ubes — Lagos. Interior 
towns : Braganza — Braga — Almeida — Coimbra. 
Name rivers of Portugal. What town on Tagus? On 
Douro? 

(497.) Towns of Spain. — Seaports on Mediter¬ 
ranean : Barcelona — Tarragona — Castellon-de- 
la-Plana — Valencia — Alicante — Cartagena — 
Almeria — Malaga — Gibraltar (British fortress and 
town) — Tar if a. On Atlantic: Cadiz—Santa Maria 

— Xeres — Palos — Coruna — Ferrol. On Bay of 
Biscay : Gijon (he-hon')— Santander — Bilboa or 
Bilbao — San Sebastian. Towns not seaports nearest 
Atlantic and Bay of Biscay: Santiago — Oviedo — 
Astorga — Leon—Palencia—Valladolid — Bur¬ 
gos. Nearest the Pyrenees frontier: Pamplona, or 
Pampeluna — Saragossa — Lerida — Gerona. 
Nearest Mediterranean: Tortosa — Murcia—Granada 

— Cordova — Sevilla. Nearest Portugal : Badajos 

— Alcantara — CiudadRodrigo — Zamora. Central 
Towns: Segovia — Escurial — Madrid — Cuenca — 
A1 bacete—Aranj uez —Toledo —Talavera. Towns 
of the Insular Provinces: Palma on Majorca — Port- 
Mahon, capital of Minorca—Santa Cruz, capital of 
the Canary Is.— Iviza, on I. of Iviza. 

Remark. 1. Palos was the port from which Columbus 
sailed (1492); and to which he returned, after having dis¬ 
covered the New World. At the gates of the convent, La 
Rabida, in the neighborhood of Palos, he had once begged 
a crust of bread. The ruins of the convent yet remain. 

2. From Santa Maria, is exported the celebrated sherry 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


183 


wine, the name of which is a corruption of Xeres , where 
it is chiefly manufactured. 

Name rivers of Spain? Towns on or near the Guadal- 
quiver? on or near the Tagus? on the Ebro? 

(498.) Town's of France. — On Mediterranean 
(seaports) : Monaco—Nice (neess) — Antibes (an-teeb) 
—F rejus — Toulon —Marseilles — Cette. Nearest 
Spain: Perpignan — Pau (poj. Bay of Bistay 
(seaports): Bayonne with Biarritz — Bordeaux 
(Bor-do') — Rochefort —La Rochelle —Nantes — 
L 5 Orient Brest. British Channel (seaports): Cher- 
burg (Share-burg) — Caen (Kan) — Rouen (Roo-en) — 
Havre (Hah'-vre)— Dieppe — Boulogne (boo-lon'). 
On Strait of Dover: Calais — Dunkirk. Nearest Bel¬ 
gium: Lille—-Arras (Ar-rah)—Cambray — Laon — 
Rheims (rimes). Nearest Luxemburg , Rhine Province, 
Rhe?iish Bavaria and Baden: Metz — Nancy — Stras¬ 
bourg —Mulhausen, orMulhouse. Nearest Switzer¬ 
land: Besanpon (Be-san-son). Nearest Italy: Cham- 
bery — Grenoble. Interior towns: Aix (Aeks) — 
Avignon — Nimes (neem) — Montpellier — Nar- 
bonne — Toulouse — Perigeux — Angouleme — 
Limoges —Poitiers—Angers —Tours — Le Mans. 
Fontainebleau (bio) — Paris with Versailles — 
Amiens —Chalons (sha-long) — Troyes — Dijon — 
Autun — Lyon — Vienne — V alence — Etienne — 
Clermont — Moulins —Bourges — Orleans. What 
french towns on Garonne? on Loire? on Rhone? on 
Rhine? 

(499.) Towns of Belgium. — Antwerp — 
Malines or Mechlin — Brussels with Waterloo — 
Louvain — Liege — Namur — Mons — Ghent — 
Bruges — Ostende. Name rivers of Belgium. What 
towns on the Scheldt? Meuse? 

(500.) Towns of Holland. — Groeningen — 
Zwolle — Arnhem — Utrecht — Nymvegen, or 


184 


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Nimeguen — D ort—Rotter dam —Hague —Ley¬ 
den — Amsterdam — Haarlem — Maestricht — 
Luxembourg (in Prov. Luxg. PI. V. A). What 
dutch towns on Rhine? Meuse or Maas? 

(501.) Towns of Denmark. — Copenhagen — 
Els incur (on I. of Seeland) — Odensee — (on I. of 

Funen) — Aalborg — Aarhaus. 

# 

(502.) Towns of Prussia. — Name 16 present 
provinces of Prussia (PI. V. A and B). Pomerania : 
Stralsund — Putbus — Stettin — Col berg. W. 
and E. Prussia : Dantzic — Elbing — Koenigsberg 

— Tilsit — Memel — Insterburg — Thorn. Posen 
or Prussian Poland : Posen — Bromberg. Prussian 
Silesia : Goerlitz — Liegnitz — Breslau — Neisse — 
Glatz. Prussian Saxony : Magdeburg---Witten berg 

— Torgau — Halle. Brandenburg: Brandenburg — 
Berlin — Spandau —Potsd am — Custrin —Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder. Westphalia : Minden — Biele¬ 
feld— Munster. Rhine Province: Crefeld — Elber- 
feld — Dusseldorf — Cologne — Aix-la-Chapelle 

— Bonn — Coblentz — Kreutznach — Treves. 
Hohenzollern: Hechingen — Sigmaring en. Hano¬ 
ver: Hanover—Goettingen. Hesse-Cassel: Cassel. 
Frankfort-on-the-Main: Frankfort - on - the - Main. 
Nassau: Wiesbaden — Ems. Hesse-Homburg: Hom- 
burg. Holstein with Lauenburg : Rendsburg — Kiel 

— Gluck stadt — Alton a. Schleswig: Flensburg — 
Schleswig. 

(503.) Towns of the other States united 
in new North German League. — Mecklenburg - 
Schwerin: Rostock — Schwerin — Ludswigslust. 
Mecklenburg - Strelitz: Strelitz. Oldenburg: Olden¬ 
burg. Northern half of Hesse-Darmstadt: Giessen. 
Brunswick: Brunswick. Anhalt: Dessau. Wal- 
deck: Arolsen. Lippe-Detmold: Detmold. Lippe- 
Schaumburg : Buckeburg. Schwarzburg - Rudolstadt : 



SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


185 


Rudojstadt. Schwarzburg - Sondershausen : Sonders- 
hausen. Tliuringian States : Altenburg — Weimar 

— Gotha—Eisenach. Saxony : Leipsic—Dresden 
Freiberg — Chemnitz. Free Cities : Bremen — 
Hamburg — Lubeck. 

(504.) Towns of the South German States. - 

Baden: Manheim — Heidelberg — Carlsruhe — 
Baden-Baden — Constance — Freiburg. Wurtem- 
berg: Stuttgard. Bavaria : Wurzburg — Bamberg 

— Nuremberg — Ratisbon— Ulm — Augsburg — 
Landshut — Passau — Munich. Rhenish Bavaria : 
Speyer (or Spire, Spires) — Landau. Hesse- 
Darmstadt : Mentz (or Mainz — Fr. Mayence) — 
D a rm stadt — Worms. 

(504 A.) Remark. 1. Rhenish Bavaria. — The little 

territory, on the right bank of the Rhine, sometimes called 
the' Palatinate , because it formed part of one of the old circles 
of Germany, bearing that name before the French revolu¬ 
tion of 17S9 (PI. V. A. fig. 1), is now a province of Bavaria. 

2. Speyer. — The name, Protestant , originated at the Diet 
held in Spires (1529). The Roman Catholic members, act¬ 
ing for the Pope and the Emperor of Germany, had passed 
a resolution, that no further innovations in religious matters 
should, for the present at least, be allowed. Against this, 
the Evangelical Estates entered their solemn Protest , declar¬ 
ing their readiness to obey all orders of the Emperor, except 
such as they deemed repugnant to u God and his Holy Word.” 

3. Worms. — Many diets were also held at Worms. 
That of 1521 is the most celebrated, from the fact that 
Luther appeared there, in presence of the Emperor Charles 
V, the princes and nobles of the empire, the dignitaries 
of the Church, and an immense concourse of spectators. 
Instead of recanting his doctrines, which seemed the only 
way to save himself from being burned alive, he boldly 
reiterated them; and proclaimed, still more solemnly, his 
conviction of their truth, adding: “Here I stand! I cannot 
otherwise! God help me! Amen!” 

4. Augsburg — is also famous for many events, partic¬ 
ularly the diet of 1530, at which the well known Confession 


186 


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of Faith, called the Confession of Augsburg , drawn up by 
Melanchton, and subscribed by the Protestant princes, was 
publicly presented to the Emperor Charles V. 

Name rivers of German States (Austria being excluded). 
What german towns on Rhine? Main? Aar? Moselle? 
Weser? Elbe? Oder? Vistula? 

(505.) Towns of Austria (PI. VI. B). — Bohemia: 
Eger — Carlsbad — Prague — Teplitz — Reichen- 
berg — Gitschin — Trautenau — Nachod — Koe- 
niggraetz (battle-ground 1866) — Budweis — Pil- 
sen. Austrian Silesia: Troppau. Moravia: Olmutz — 
Brunn — Austerlitz. Upper Austria: Linz — Ischl. 
Lower Austria: Vienna—Neustadt. Styria: Graetz. 
Salzburg: Salzburg — G as t e i n. Tyrol with Vorarlberg: 
Innsbruck—Botzen — Trent. Carinthia: Klagen- 
furt. Carniola with Istiia: Laibach j —Goritzia, and 
the territory and townshipof Tri es te. Hungary: Pres- 
burg — Comorn — Schemnitz — Kremnitz — Neu- 
soh 1 — Kaschau—Tokay—M iskolcz — Debreczin 

— Gross wardein Szegedin (seg'ed-in) — T ernes war 
—Neusatz—Theresiopol —Funfkirchen—Stuhl- 
weissenburg — Pesth — Buda — Raab — Oeden- 
burg. Galicia with Cracow: Cracow — Wieliczka — 
Lemberg — Brody. Bukowina: Czernowitz. Tran¬ 
sylvania: Klausenburg — Maros — Vasarhely ; — 
Kronstadt— Karls burg—Hermanstadt. Slavonia: 
Peterwardein — Semlin. Croatia: Agram — Carl- 
stadt — Fiume. Dalmatia: Zara — Spalato — Ra- 
gusa — Cattaro. 

Remark. Cracow — ancient capital of Poland — (after 
Congress of Vienna, a small independent republic,) was 
annexed to Austria in 1846.— Wieliczka (Vee-litch'-kah) 

— celebrated for magnificent mines of rock-salt — contains 
a subterranean town, with streets, churches, statues, etc., 
all out of the solid salt-rock. Within the mines are a small 
lake, a rivulet of fresh water, and a chapel hewn out of 
rock-salt. 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


187 


(506.) Military Fronti er — is not strictly 
speaking, a province. The strip of country so called, 
extending along nearly the whole Turkish frontier, from 
the Adriatic eastward to Moldavia, and consisting of 
portions of Croatia, Slavonia, the Banat and Transyl¬ 
vania, was, in 1807, erected into a kind of military 
organization, as a protection against the Turks. It is 
no longer of any importance, although the name is 
still used. 

(507.) Towns of Xtoumania. — Moldavia: Bo- 
tuschani—Jassy (yas-see)—Galatz—Kilia. Valakhia: 
Braila (or Ibrail) — Bucharest (or Boo'kar-esht) 

— Giurgevo — Krajova. 

Remark. Kilia , a fortified town on one of the mouths 
of the Danube, was ceded to Turkey by the Treaty of 
Paris, 1855. 

(508.) Towns of Turkey in Europe. — Bosnia 
with Turkish Croatia, and Herzegovina: Banyaluke—- 
Travnik — Serajevo (or Bosna Serai) — Mostar 
(Herzegovina.) Servia : Be 1 grade— Kraguyewatz. 
Bulgaria with Dobrodja or Dobrudja: Yidin — Sistov 
or Sistova — Rustchuk — Silistria — Sulina — 
Kostendje — Varna — Schumla — Sofia. Rumelia: 
Nish—Uskub—Philippopli (or Philippopolis)— 
Slivno —Burgas — Adrianople — Constant! nople 
(or Stamrbul) — Rodosto — Gallipoli — Seres — 
Salonica — Bitolia. Albania with Thessalia: Scu¬ 
tari* — Durazzo — Avlona — Yanina — Larissa. 
Montenegro: Cettinie. Candia: Kanea — Rithymno 

— Candia, or Megalo Kastro — Gerapetre. 

(509.) Towns of Greece. —' Rumelia: Zeitoun 
or Lamia — Mesolonghi — Lepanto — Thebes — 


* Not to be confounded with Scutari in Asia Minor, oppo 
site Constantinople. 



188 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


Athens — Piraeus (port of Athens). Morea : Patras 
— Corinth — Argos — Nauplia — Tripolitza — 
Sparta — Navarino. Ionian Is.: Corfu (on I. of 
Corfu). Cyclades: Syr a (on I. of Syr a). Grecian 
Sporades: Chalcis (Egripo or Negropont on I. of 
Euboea) — Hydra (on I. of Hydra) — Egina (on 
I. of Egina). 


(510.) Syr a or Hermopolis — capital of the govern¬ 
ment Cyclades — residence of consuls from most 
European States — principal station of Mediterranean 
steamers going to and from Constantinople — harbor 
accessible to large ships. Corinth. — Paul addressed 
two Epistles to its inhabitants. 


(511.) Towns of Italy. — Piedmont: Aosta — 
Novara—Turin —Alessandria—Cun eo—Savona 

— Genoa — Spezzia. Lombardy: Sondrio — Ber¬ 
gamo — Como — Milan — Pavia — Cremona — Sol- 
ferino — Brescia. Venetia: Belluno — Udine — 
Treviso — Venice — Chiozza — Padua — Legnago 
(len-ya'go) — Mantua — Peschiera (pes-ke-a'-ra) — 
Verona—Vicenza. Emilia: Piacenza — Parma — 
Ferrara — Modena — Bologna —Ravenna — Forli 

— Rimini — Carrara. Tuscany: Leghorn — Pisa — 
Lucca—Florence — Siena. Marca: Sinigaglia 
(se - ne - gal' ya) — Ancona — Macerata — Fermo. Um¬ 
bria: Perugia — Rieti. Naples: Gaeta — Capua — 
Naples— Portici —Pozzuoli — Castel-a-mare — 
Sorrento —Amal fi—Salerno — Cosenza —Reggio 

— Catanzaro—Taranto — Gallipoli — Otranto — 
Brindisi —Bari—Foggia- Chieti—Campobasso 

— Benevento — Potenza. I. of Sicily: Palermo — 
Messina — Catania — Syracuse — Girgenti — 
Marsala -— Trapani — Nicosia — Caltanisetta. 
Papal States: Viterbo — Civita Vecchia — Rome — 
Velletri. I. of Sardinia: Cagliari — Sassari. 

Remark. Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, Legnago, form 
together the supposed impregnable fortresses, called the 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


189 


Quadrilateral. They were ceded, by Austria to France, 
and by France to Italy, 1866—Austria retiring from Germany 
and Italy at the same moment (468). 

(512.) Towns of Switzerland (PI. V. B). — 

Name cantons of Switzerland. Bern: Bern — Thun. 
Soleure : Soleure. Basel: Basel. Aargau: Aargau. 
Zurich : Zurich. Schaffhausen: Schaffhausen. Thur- 
gau : Frauenfeld. St. Gall: St. Gall—Ragatz. 
Appenzell: Appenzell. Grisons: Chur (koor). Ticino: 
Lugano — Locarno — Bellinzona. Valais: Sion 
— Martigny — Leuk. Geneva: Geneva. Vaud: 
Lausanne — Yevey. Neufchdtel : Neufchatel — 
Chaux-de-Fonds. Fribourg: Fribourg. Lucerne: 
Lucerne. Zug: Zug. Schwytz: Schwytz. Glarus: 
Glarus. Uri: Altorf (famous in history of W. Tell). 
Unterwalden: S t a n z. 

(513.) Lakes. — Nature appears to have gathered 
the lakes of Europe into two groups — one, distinguished 
by larger size, in the neighborhood of the Baltic; 
the other, generally more elevated above the sea, and 
marked by exquisite beauty of scenery, scattered among 
the Alps. In the Hungarian plain are several; and a 
large number, very shallow, are found in the low 
marshes of Holland. The entire area of the continental 
European lakes has been estimated at about 38,000 
English square miles. Those situated around the Baltic, 
i. e. Ladoga, Onega, Wener, etc., (PI. II) comprehend 
more than five-sixths. They are all fresh-water, except 
the Neusiedler See and L. Balaton, both in Hungary. 

(513 A.) Remark. Plate II. figs. 1. 2. give a selection 
of the principal rivers of the world with their length; and 
the lakes through which they flow — the Rhine, through L. 
Constance, the Rhone through L. Geneva. .The two lakes, 
through which the Nile flows, are the Victoria-Nyanza and 
the Albert- Nyanza (455). The student will do well to read 
over all those rivers in figs. 1. 2. with their respective 
lakes. 


190 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


(514.) Lakes of Austria. — L. Zirknitz (Ca- 
rinthia), 18 sq. m.—Neusiedler See, 150 sq. m., and 
Platten See (or L. Balaton) 250 sq. m. (the two 
latter in Hungary). 


(515.) L. Zirknitz contains numerous tunnels — 
like holes, 50 feet deep, called sieves, through which 
the water alternately quite vanishes, then suddenly 
re-appears, so that a person can, each year, plant 
buckwheat, cut hay, fish and shoot water-fowl, in 
and on same spot. The water sometimes fills the 
whole basin in twenty-four hours. The streams, which 
feed this lake, are also most curious; flowing, in part, 
on the surface of the earth, then suddenly vanishing, 
to re-appear again later. 


(516.) Lakes of Germany. — Koenigsee (Ba¬ 
varia). 


(517.) Lakes of Switzerland. — L. Constance 
or Boden See, 228 sq. m. — L. Geneva, 240 sq. 
m. — L. Neufchatel, 115 sq. m. —L. Sempach, 
4 sq. m. — L. Zurich, 76 sq. m. — L. Wallenstadt, 
22 sq. m. — L. Zug, 135 sq. m. — L. Lucerne or 
Vierwaldstaedter See 99 sq. m.—L. Brienz, 12 sq. 
m. — L. Thun, 20 sq. m. 

Remark. Switzerland has more celebrated lakes, in 
proportion to its size, than any other country. They are 
surrounded by lofty mountains, and give, to scenery, 
already remarkable for magnificence, an additional and 
ravishing beauty. Vierwaldstaedter See —i. e. Four-forest- 
cantons-lake. 


(518.) Lakes of Italy (PI. V. B). — L. Mag- 
giore, 152 sq. m. — L. Como, 66 sq. m.—L. Iseo — 
L. Garda, 183 sq. m. — (PI. VI. B) L. Perugia, or 
Trasimene. 


SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE. 


191 


(519.) Lakes of England. — L. Windermere 

— L. Dervent Water — L. Keswick — L. Bala 
(Wales). 

(520.) Lakes of Scotland. — Loch Lomond 
(lok) — largest lake in Scotland — twenty-four miles in 
length, and seven miles in its greatest breadth. It 
contains more than 30 islands.— Loch Awe — second 
in magnitude — Loch Ness — Loch Oich—Loch 
Lochie — Loch Leven — Loch Katrine. 

Remark. Scotland is remarkable for the number, 
great beauty and wild grandeur of its lakes; some of them, 
in connexion with the deeply indented friths and estuaries 
which make its coast so striking, have been admirably 
used for purposes of internal navigation. The Caledonian 
Canal, one of the greatest works of modern engineering, 
connects the North Sea with the Atlantic. It is more 
than 60 miles long, of which 37 miles lie through Loch 
Ness, Loch Oich, Loch Lochie. 

(521.) Lakes of Ireland. — Lough Neagh 
(loh-nay)—largest lake in the British Isles—twenty 
miles long (from north to south), and ten in breadth 

— Lough Erne— area fifty-seven sq. m. Lough 
Allen — Lough Conn — Lough Mask — Lough 
Corrib — Lough Ree — Lough Derg — Lakes of 
Killarney, highly celebrated for picturesque beauty; 
upon their western side the highest mountains in Ireland 
rise steeply from the edge of the water. 

Remark. The word lovgh (loh), by which the lakes are 
distinguished (like the similar word loch in Scotland), is 
applied equally to inland lakes and to estuaries, or salt¬ 
water inlets. 

(522.) Wales (486). — S. W. portion of Gr. Britain 

— till 1536, an independent Principality — still retaining 
its name, from which the title, Prince of Wales—140 
miles long — 90 broad — mountainous, Mt. Snow’don, 
culminating point of the whole island (PI. VI. B). 



PART Y. 


OUTLINE VIEW OF TOWNS, RIVERS, ETC. 

OF 

UNITED STATES OF AMEKICA. 


INTRODUCTION. 


(523.) It now remains for us to take a somewhat 
nearer view of the towns, rivers, etc., of the United 
States of America. This republic, is bounded N. by 
British America, from which it is separated by 49th 
parallel, great lakes, and St. Lawrence; E. by Canada 
(New Brunswick) and Atlantic; S. by Atlantic, Florida 
Str., G. of Mexico and Mexico; W. by Mexico and 
Pacific (from C. Flattery to town of San Diego). It 
comes in immediate contact with no foreign Power 
but British America, Mexico, and, since the recent 
purchase (424), Russia. On the S. E., Cuba and the 
rest of the West India Isles, bring it into certain 
relations with 6 European, and 3 American States 
(211—216. PI. III. fig. 3). Farther, on the N. E., 
lies the Danish Possession, Greenland, where the 
Christian missionary, by a life of labor, danger and 
self-sacrifice, is silently carrying out the great work 
of his divine Master. The Unoccupied Arctic Lands 
are scarcely inhabited, except by the few Mongol 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


193 


wanderers, originally from eastern Asia, called Esquimaux. 
Before particularly considering the U. States, it will 
be useful to take a brief survey of the other countries 
of N. America. 


(524.) Russian America, including (PI. II.) 
Kodiak I., Sitka I., the Aleutian or Fox Is., and several 
other groups — lately, by purchase, N. W. territory of 
the United States in consideration of 7,200,000 dollars. 
We have thus acquired a part proprietorship in Behring 
Str., and in Mt. St. Elias. Our flag now floats within 
the arctic circle, about 71 st parallel — a point, where the 
sun, in summer, remains more than two months above, 
and, in winter, the same period below, the horizon. 
Remark (PI. II.) when it is 6 o'clock in the afternoon , 
on the Yenisei R. (Russia in Asia), it is 6 o'clock in 
the morning, at the mouth of the Mississippi; and about 
midnight, at the mouth of the Kwichpack. “Now”, Senator 
Sumner remarks, “as the settlements of this coast came 
eastward , from Russia, bringing, with the Russian flag, 
western time, the day is earlier, by twenty-four hours, 
with them than with us; so that their Sunday is our 
Saturday; and the other days of the week are in 
corresponding discord. This must be rectified according 
to the national meridian”. Population, about 54,000 
(Esquimaux, Kenaians, Aleutians and other Indians — 
in 1866, about 900 Russians), generally fishermen and 
fur-hunters. This territory had never been actually 
taken possession of by the Russian government. The 
supreme authority was vested in a Russian Company, 
whose sole object was to collect furs. We are sepa¬ 
rated from the territory by British Columbia. 


(525.) British America — between Unoccupied 
Arctic Lands, Great Lakes and St. Lawrence — a 
colony of Gr. Britain, intersected by arctic circle — 
with a shattered and broken coast washed by dreary 
and desolate oceans — population (British and French), 

13 


194 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


3,494,240, exclusive of about 155,000 Indians. Its 
chief political divisions are: Hudson Bay Company’s 
Territory (including Labrador, Rupert's Land , Columbia , 
with Vancouver I.) — East or Lower Canada — West 
or Upper Canada, with Anticosti I. — New Brunswick 

— Nova Scotia, with Cape Breton I. — Newfoundland 

— Prince Edward I. The vast western region supplies 
the world (even including Russia) with furs. The 
fur-bearing animals are decreasing. 

Canada has a united population of about 2,500,000 

— a considerable portion french, still preserving french 
customs and the Roman Catholic religion. 

Rupert's Land — central and chief division of 
the-Hudson Bay Company’s Territory — capital and 
principal trading station, Fort York — magnificent 
forests, vast prairies and a soil yielding European 
cereals. 

Red River Settlement — immediately N. of our 
northern frontier — thriving colony, with a good 
climate and fruitful soil — wheat, rye, oats, barley in 
great abundance — drained by the Assiniboin and 
Saskatchewan rivers — capable of supporting a dense 
population. 

Columbia (with Vancouver I.) —sometimes called New 
Caledonia—capital, Victoria. Gold has been discovered 
near the Frazer River — single pieces worth 10 or 
15 dollars. A digger has gained, sometimes, 50 dollars 
a day — one gained 213. Gold is found thickly 
scattered, not only over this region and California, 
but also over Washington Ter., Oregon, Idaho, 
Montana, Colorado and Arizona — generally side by 
side with silver and other mineral treasures. 

Vancouver I. — on 50 th parallel — formerly Quadra 

— in some parts, extremely fertile — splendid timber — 
rich in coal, fish, furs — excellent harbors —a position 
favorable for trade with Oregon, Russia, China, Australia 

— ceded to Gr. Britain (1846). 

Remark. — A Royal Proclamation, by the British 
government, took effect July 1, 1867, uniting into one 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


195 


Confederation, under the name of Canada, the three 
provinces, Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. 


(526.) Mexico — extensive coast on Pacific 
and G. of Mexico — intersected by tropic of Cancer — 
an immense plateau of plutonic origin, from 6 to 
9000 feet high, ramifying into separate mountain- 
chains— population, nearly 8,000,000 — the only 
limitrophe*) country of the United States on the S.— 
provinces adjoining United States: Tamaulipas, New 
Leon, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Sonora and Lower California 
— established religion and only one recognized by the 
government, the Roman Catholic — education, very 
backward. Mexico w r as a Spanish possession till 1810. 
General Iturbide /suffered death by military execution 
(1824) for having a second time proclaimed himself 
emperor. Spain recognized the independence of Mexico 
in 1836. Since then Mexico has been in a chaotic state. 
In 1862, the Emperor Napoleon III. conceived the idea 
of placing an Austrian Prince, Maximilian, as emperor, 
upon the Mexican throne. The attempt to execute 
his plan by french bayonets, accompanied by enormous 
bloodshed and suffering, resulted in signal failure, 
and Maximilian was shot by the Mexican authorities. 
Slavery has been prohibited, but the haciendas — that 
is, the laborers on the great plantations — being 
deeply indebted to their employers, are said to suffer 
from a condition of thraldom, more insupportable than 
that of a negro slave. 


(527.) Cuba, this luxuriant and lovely island, just 
within the Tropics, has a peculiar interest, from its 
close proximity to the United States; and from the 
general opinion that, notwithstanding the prohibition 
of the slave-trade, that cruel traffic has continued 
to be carried on. 


*) Limitrophe — on the limits of. 

13 * 


196 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


(528.) The number of regularly organized states 
is 38. The number of territories, 10, besides a portion 
of land, 10 square miles, called District of Columbia, 
ceded, by Maryland and Virginia, as the seat of 
the national government, and under its. immediate 
jurisdiction. The rapidly increasing population will 
probably soon transform the territories into organized 
states. In the following lessons, for the convenience 
of learning, we, at first, take states and territories 
together, without distinction. The list of territories 
will subsequently be learned apart. The states and 
territories are naturally divided into 12 groups. 
Where a state belongs, at the same time, to two 
groups, it will be repeated; as, for example, in the 
case of Florida, Texas, California, etc. The pupil is 
begged always to follow this rule in the series of 
repetitions. 

(529.) New England States. — Maine —New 
Hampshire — Vermont (R. theseS). Massachusetts 
— Rhode Island — Connecticut (R. these 3 .— How 
many ? R. 6 from Maine), 

Remark. The name, New England States , has no 
political signification. The region, when a French possession 
New France , was afterwards called New England. All 
these states touch the Atlantic, except Vermont. 

(530.) Other States touching Atlantic. — 

New York — New Jersey — Pennsylvania (R . 
these 3). Delaware — Maryland — E. Virginia (R. 
these 3. — R. from New York). N. Carolina — S. 
Carolina—Georgia (R. these 3. — R. from New 
York). Florida (R. — How many from New York ? R. 
these 10. — R. from Maine). 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


197 


(531.) Touching G. of Mexico. — Florida — 

Alabama — Mississippi (R. these 3). Louisiana — 
Texas (R. these 2 .— How many from Florida ? R. these 5. 

— R. from Maine), 

(532.) Touching Mexico. — Texas — New 
Mexico — Arizona (R. these 3). California (How 
many from Texas 1 R. these 4. — R. from Florida — R. from 
Maine). 

(533.) Touching Pacific. — California — 
Oregon —Washington (R. these 3. — R. from Florida 

— R. from Maine). 

(534.) Touching British America, W. of 
Lakes. — Washington — Idaho — Montana (R. 
these 3). Dakota — Minnesota (How many from 
Washington ? R. these 5. — R. from Florida—from Maine). 

(535.} Touching Great Lakes. — Minnesota 

— Wisconsin — Michigan (R. these 3). Illinois — 
Indiana — Ohio (R. these 3. — R. from Minnesota). 
Pennsylvania — New York (R. these 2. — How many 
from Minnesotaf R. these 8. — R. from Florida — R. from 
Maine). 

(536.) Lake States which directly touch 
British America. — Minnesota — Michigan — 
New York (R. these 3. — R. states from Washington 
—from Florida — from Maine). 

(537.) Touching British America, E. of Lakes. 

— New York — Vermont — New Hampshire (R. 
these 3). Maine (How many from New Yoriel R. these 
4. — R. from Washington—from Maine). 

Remark. We have now named, how many (states 
and territories)? Thirty-four. How many remain yet 
unnamed, including District of Columbia? Fifteen. 


198 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


(538.) Interior States, W. of Mississippi. — 

Nevada — Utah—Wyoming* (R. these 3). Colorado 
— Nebraska—Kansas (R. these 3. — R. from Nevada). 
Iowa — Missouri — Arkansas (R. these 3. — R. from 
Nevada). Indian Territory.** (How many ? R. these 
10. — R. from Washington—from Maine). 

(539.) E. of Mississippi. — Tennessee — 
Kentucky — W. Virginia (R. these 3). Lastly, 
District of Columbia. (How many? R. these 4 .— 
How many states altogether ? R. these 48, bearing, 
however, in mind that they include territories and 
one District). 

(540.) On Arctic Ocean. — The territory, till 
now called Russian America. (R. the whole 49). 

(541.) Ten Territories, July 1867. — Of 

these 49 divisions, 10 are as yet territories. By 
territory is meant those portions which, from want of 
sufficient population and other causes, are not yet 
organized as states. Washington — Idaho — Mon¬ 
tana— Dakota (R. these 4). Utah —Wyoming — 
(R. these 2. — R. from Washington Ter). — Arizona — 
New Mexico — Indian Territory (R. these 3. — R. 
from Washington Ter). Russian America. 

WATER DIVISIONS—LAKES —ISLANDS — 
CAPES. 

(542.) Water Divisions. — On the Atlantic, from 
B. of Fundy to Florida B .—-Passamaquoddy B. — 
Machias B.— Frenchman’s B. — Penobscot B.— 


* A section of Dakota is called Wyoming, by some maps, 

although it has not yet been organized as a territory. ** The 
Indian Ter. is not, strictly speaking, a territory. It is a 
region set apart, by the government of the United States, as 
a home for certain Indian tribes. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


199 


Casco B. — Massachusetts B. — Cap Cod B.— 
Buzzard’s B. — Narraganset B. — Long Island 
Sound — New York B. — Little and Great Egg 
Harbor — Delaware B. — Chesapeake B. — 
Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds — Raleigh B. 
(raw'-lee) — Onslow B. — Long B. — Winyaw B.— 
Bull’s B. — Charleston Harbor — Port Royal 
Entrance — Str. of Florida — Florida B. 

G. of Mexico, from Florida B. to mouth of Rio 
Grande. — Chatham B.— Oyster B. — Charlotte 
Harbor — Tampa B. — Appalachee B. — Appa- 
lachicola B.— St. Joseph’s B.— Pensacola B.— 
Mobile B. — Mississippi Sound — Chandeleur 
B. — Atchafalaya B.—Vermillion B. — Galveston 
B.—Matagorda B.— 

Pacific, from town San Diego to G. of Georgia. — 
Monterey B.— San Francisco B. — Str. of Juan 
de Fuca — Puget Sound — G. of Georgia. — 

On Lakes. — Keweenaw B. (L. Superior) — 
Green B. — Gr. Traverse B. (L. Michigan) — 
Mackinaw Str. and Saginaw B. (L. Huron) — Str. 
St. Mary — Sandusky B. (L. Erie). — 

Remark to the teacher. — In these sections, the principle 
of repetition can easily be applied. The pupil may be 
required, also, to repeat each state, with the water-divisions, 
islands, etc., belonging to it — as, for example, Maine: Passam- 
aquoddy B., etc. Where a name is not found on the 
large map, seek it on the corner-figures, 1 and 2. 

(543.) Lakes. — Maine: Eagle Lakes—Grand 
L. — Schoodic Lakes (skoo'dic)—Millinoket — 
Moosehead — Moosetocmaguntic —Umbagog 

— Sebago.— New Hampshire: Umbagog — Ossipee 
Winnipiseogee — Sunapee.— Vermont: L. Cham¬ 
plain—L. Memphramagog .—Nevj York : L. George 

— L. Champlain — Saranac — Black — Oneida 

— Skaneateles — Owasco — Cayuga — Seneca 

— Canandaigua — Crooked — Chautauque — 
Ontario — Erie. — Florida: L. George — Kissime 


200 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


— Okechobee. — Louisiana : Pontchartrain — 
Maurepas — Borgne — Calcasieu. — California: 
L. Clear — Tulare — Soda. — Minnesota : Red 
L. — Itasca L. — Leech. — Michigan : L. St. 
Clair. — Wisconsin : L. Winnebago. — Nevada : 
Pyramid L.—Walker L. — Oregon : Klamath L. 

— Summer L.— Sylvanille L. — Malheur L.— 

Abert L. — Idaho : Pend Oreille. — Montana : 
Flathead. — Great Salt Lake — Utah L. 

— Sevier L. — Salt L. — 

(544.) Islands. — In Atlantic: Mt. Desert L 

— Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard — Block 
I. — Long Island and Staten Island — Roanoke 
I. — St. Helena Is. — Hilton Head I.— 

In G. of Mexico: Florida Keys—Pine Is.— 
Dry Tortugas Is.— Cedar Keys — Santa Rosa 
I. — Chandeleur Is.— 

In Pacific: San Clement I.— Santa Catalina 

— San Nicolas — Santa Cruz — Santa Rosa I. 

— San Miguel. — 

In Great Lakes : Group of Apostles — Isle 
Roy ale (L. Superior).— 

(545.) Capes. — In Atlantic: C. Ann — C. Cod 

— Sandy Hook — C. May— C. Henlopen — C. 
Charles — C. Henry — C. Flatteras — C. Lookout 

— C. Fear — C. Canaveral. 

In G. of Mexico: C. Sable— C. Romano — C. 
St. Bias. 

In Pacific: Pt. Conception — C. Mendocino — 
C. Blanco — C. Foulweather — C. Lookout — 
C. Flattery. 

RISERS AND THEIR TOWNS. 

(546.) River basins. — The rivers of W. Con¬ 
tinent, in magnitude and extent of drainage, excel 
those of E. Continent. Remark three great river basins 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


201 


inclined, first, to G. of Mexico — second, to Atlantic 

— third, to Pacific. 

Let us now consider the rivers flowing into G. 
of Mexico. 

(547.) Mississippi R. — marks boundary line 
between following states, right hank: Minnesota — 
low a— M i s s o u r i—A rkansas—Louisiana; left hank: 
Wisconsin — Illinois — Kentucky — Tenessee — 
Mississippi — Louisiana. 

(548.) Branches of Mississippi. — Among 
50 mighty affluents we select the following, right 
hank: Minnesota—Upper Iowa R. — Red Cedar 
R.— IowaR.— Des Moines — Missouri—White R. 

— Arkansas, largest tributary of Mississippi, after 
Missouri — Red River, formed by the confluence 
of Washita and Bartholomew rivers. Left hank: 
St. Croix — Chippeway R. — Black R.—Wiscon¬ 
sin R.—Rock R. — Illinois R. with Fox R., Kan¬ 
kakee and Sangamon — Kaskaskia — Ohio — 
Obion R. — Hatchee R.—Yazoo with Sunflower 

— Big Black R. 

(549.) Towns on or near Mississippi. — 
Ft. Snelling — St. Paul — Stillwater — Prescott 

— Wabashaw — Prairie du Chien—Dubuque — 
Galena — Davenport — Muscatine — Burlington 

— FortMadison — Keokuk — Quincy— Hannibal 
City — Alton — St. Charles — St. Louis — St. 
Genevieve — Kaskaskia — Cairo — Memphis — 
Helena — Arkansas — Napoleon — Columbia — 
Vicksburg — Natchez — Bayou Sara — Baton 
Rouge — Donaldsonville — New Orleans. 

Remark. — 1. The pupil, in repeating, will name the 
state or territory to which the town belongs. 

2. The teacher will, here, also, at his discretion, apply 
the principle of repetition, as in sections 285. 287 and 
elsewhere. 


502 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


(550.) Towns on branches of Mississippi. — 

Iowa City — Des Moines — Batesville — Little 
Rock — Arkansas— Harrison burg — Shreveport 

— Natchitoches (natch-i-to tch'iz, often pron. nak-e- 
tush')—Alexandria— Opelousas — Portage—Wa¬ 
tertown — Janesville — Peoria — Springfield — 
Y and alia — Kaskaskia. — 

(551.) Missouri It. — flows from Rocky Mts. 
through Idaho Ter., Dakota — then between Nebraska 
and Iowa, by Kansas, through Missouri State, where 
it empties into the Mississippi. 

(552.) Branches of Missouri It. — Right hank : 
Yellow Stone with Big Horn and Powder R.— 
Little Missouri — North Fork — Shyenne — 
White R. — Niobrara R. — South Fork of Platte 
or Nebraska with Panee Loup or Wolf R.— 
Republican Fork — Smoky Hill Fork or Kansas 

— Osage R. — Gasconade Ji.^—Left bank: Milk R. 

— James R. — Big Sioux — Little Sioux — Grand 
R. — Chariton R.— 

(553.) Towns on Missouri and branches. — 

Virginia City — Ft. Benton — Ft. Union — Ft. 
William — Ft. Clarke — Ft. Connor — Ft. Pierre 
—Yankton — Omaha City — Kearney—Nebraska 
City — St. Joseph — Atchison — Leavenworth — 
Platte City — Ft. Riley — Topeka — Lecompton 

— Wyandot — Independence — Jefferson City 

— St. Charles — Alton. 

(554.) Ohio R. — one of the most important 
—formed by the confluence, at Pittsburg, of the Alleghany 
and Monongahela with its branch, the Youghiogheny 
(yoh-ho-gay'-ny), flows through the following states, 
right hank: Pennsylvania — Ohio — Indiana — 
Illinois; left hank: Pennsylvania—W. Virginia 

— Kentucky. 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


203 


(555.) Branches of Ohio. — right hank : Beaver 
Cr. — Muskingum — Scioto — Miami — Wabash 
with Little W^abash — left hank : Little Kanawha 

— Gr. Kanawha —Big Sandy R. — Licking- 
Ken tucky—Rolling Fork —Green R. —Cumber¬ 
land — Tennessee. 

(556.) Towns on Ohio and branches. — Main 
stream : Pittsburg—Alleghany City — Steuben- 
ville — Wheeling — Marietta — Parkersburg — 
Guyandotte — Portsmouth — Maysville — Cin¬ 
cinnati — Newport — Covington — Madison — 
Louisville —New Albany—Hawesvilie —Evans¬ 
ville — Cairo — Branches : Nashville — Clarksville 

— Ft. Donelson — Chattanooga — Decatur — 
Florence. 

(557.) Other Rivers, flowing into G. of 
Mexico. — Those East of Mississippi: Caloosahatchee 

— Pease Cr. — Suwanee R. — Appalachicola, 
formed by the junction of the Chattahoochee and 
Flint — Choctawhatchee with Pea R.—Yellow 
Water—Escambia—Perdido R.—Alabama, formed 
by Tallapoosa and Coosa—Mobile R. with Tom- 
bigby, Black Warrior and the E. outlet Tensaw 

— Pascagoula with Chickasawha and Leaf — 
Pearl R. — Those West of Mississippi : Calcasieu — 
Sabine R. — Neches R.—Trinity R. — Rio Brazos 

— Rio Colorado — Guadalupe — San Antonio — 
Nueces — Rio Grande del Norte. 

(558.) Towns on Rivers, E. and W. of Mis¬ 
sissippi. ( Pupil will name each river.) — East: 
Atlanta — La Grange—Columbus—Montgomery 

— Mobile — Selma — Aberdeen — Columbus — 
Gainesville — Jackson. West: Austin — San 
Antonio — Corpus Christi — Brownsville — Ft. 
Fillmore — Mesilla — Belen — Albuquerque — 
Santa Fe — Taos. 


204 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


(559.) Rivers flowing into Atlantic. — St. 

Lawrence forms, in part of its course, boundary 
line between Canada and New York. Towns on British 
side : Toronto — Ottawa—Montreal—Quebec; on 
American side : Superior City — Sault St. Mary 

(so St. Mary) —Sheboygan—Milwaukee—Racine 

— Kenosha — Chicago — Grand Haven — Port 
Huro n—D e t r o i t — Monroe — Toledo — Sandusky 
City— Cleveland —Erie — Buffalo — Oswego — 
O gd ensburg. 

(560.) Penobscot R. — Maine— 275 miles — 
lovely scenery — large vessels ascend as far as Bangor 

— remarkable for a superior slate-quarry (on the 
branch, Piscataquis) — traverses nearly the whole state 
and is studded with a number of small islands. Towns : 
Bangor, Rockland. 

(561.) Kennebeck Maine — rises in Moosehead 
L. Towns : Moscow — Solon — Nor ridge wock — 
W ater ville. 

(562.) Connecticut R. — longest and one of 
the most beautiful of New England — 400 m. — rising 
near Canada, separates New Hampshire from Vermont, 
and, after having traversed Massachusetts and Connect¬ 
icut, empties into Long Island Sound, at New London, 
one of the best harbors of the state. Towns : Guildhall— 
Lancaster — Newbury — Haverhill — Norwich — 
Hanover—Windsor—Charlestown—Brattle boro 

— Greenfield— Deerfield — Springfield—Hart¬ 
ford — Middletown. 

(563.) Hudson — 300 m. — flows out of the 
Adirondac Mts. into New York Bay, through enchanting 
scenery, rivaling that of the Rhine. Principal Towns : 
Troy—Albany—Hudson —Poughkeepsie —West 
Point — New York — Hoboken. 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


205 


(564.) Delaware R. — 300 m. — rises "in New 
4 ork among the Katskill Mts. — flows through following 
states, right bank : Pennsylvania, Delaware; left 
bank'. New York, New Jersey. Ships of largest 
size come up to 'Philadelphia — steamboats to Trenton. 
Towns : Easton — Trenton — Philadelphia — Cam¬ 
den— New Castle — Wilmington. 

(565.) Susquehanna — largest stream in Penn¬ 
sylvania—length, 500 miles—traverses New York, Penn¬ 
sylvania, Maryland and falls into Chesapeake B. — 
numerous beautiful islands — navigation, obstructed by 
rocky rapids, carried on by two parallel canals. — 
Town : Havre de Grace. 

(566.) pot omac — Length, 350 miles — largest 
branch, Shenandoah — boundary between Maryland and 
Virginia — beautiful scenery — navigable for largest 
ships to Washington City. Principal towns : Cumber¬ 
land— Georgetown —W ashington —Alexandria 
— 8 miles below the latter, Mount Vernon, the 
former residence of Gen. Washington. 

(567.) Four Rivers flowing into Pacific. — 
Colorado (called also Colorado of the West) — length, 
with its branch, Green River, 1200 m. — forming part 
of boundary between California and Arizona — remark¬ 
able for the great defile, by which it has forced its 
way through the Rocky Mts. — precipitous banks, 1000 
to 1500 feet high — tribes of Indians live along its 
shores — traces of ancient irrigating canals, showing 
that this region was formerly cultivated — a great tidal 
wave at its mouth renders the entrance dangerous 
except for vessels of light draught. Town : Fort 
Yuma. 

Remark. There are two other American rivers of this 
name, one, the Rio Colorado, emptying into Matagorda B. 
(G. of Mexico), the other (PI. II.), traversing the Argen¬ 
tine Confederation from Andes to Atlantic. 


206 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


(568.) Sacramento — large and important river 
— 500 m. long — draining, with its branch, the San 
Joaquin, the great central valley of California — 
navigable at all seasons to Sacramento, and for small 
vessels 150 m. farther. Towns : Shasta—Sacra¬ 
mento— Stockton. 

(569.) Columbia or Oregon R. — 1200 m. 
long — enters the Pacific — part of its course, boundary 
between Oregon and Washington. It is the largest of 
the Pacific rivers — navigable 145 m. up. Towns: Ft. 
Walla-Walla — Ft. Vancouver. 

(570.) Kwichpack or Yucon (Plates II. IV.) — 
great river of the yet unnamed N. W. territory of the 
United States — length, with its windings, 1500 m.— 
rises in the Rocky Mts. and enters into Behring Sea 
(Pacific). The Kwichpack and Yucon are considered, 
by some geographers, to be one river, as on our maps. 

(571.) The Mississippi — (“Great Water” — 
“King of American streams”) — with its tributaries, 
one of the largest river systems of the globe, 
draining one-seventh part of north american continent. 
It rises in the highlands of Minnesota State, at a place 
called Hauteur de Terre, W. of L. Superior — length, 
from L. Itasca, the source of Mississippi proper, 3,200 m.; 
but, from the source of the Missouri, the main branch, 
4,350 m. Flowing, at first, through majestic primeval 
forests, the solemn uncleared land of the red Indian, 
from a point, where the earth is covered, a great part of 
the year, with snow and ice — then, along tracts marked 
by moss, the fir-tree, and other northern vegetation — 
it rolls on, between ever changing shores — by populous 
and rapidly growing cities — receiving, from the Rocky 
Mts. and Alleghanies, as it advances, about 50 mighty 
affluents which, in Europe, would be called important 
rivers — bearing upon its bosom, night and day, 
hundreds of immense steamers, crowded with human 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


207 


beings, it sweeps through vast, monotonous savannahs 
covered with long grass — plantations of sugar-cane, 
cotton and fruits of the south — into G. of Mexico, at a 
point where snow and ice are unknown phenomena, 
and where the odors of the orange, lemon and magnolia 
are wafted by the breezes of a perpetual summer. There 
are several falls, among others, those of St. Anthony. 
It is studded with numerous islands. Its banks some¬ 
times rise into broken and precipitous bluffs, 150 to 
750 feet high, intersected by deep ravines—gentle valleys 
opening on either side and waving with forests of 
pine, birch, maple and cedar — wide prairies and wood¬ 
lands — sometimes inundating its shores for a hundred 
miles — masses of timber annually drifting down its 
stream, occasionally forming floating islands covered 
with vegetation and fixing, into the bottom, the dread¬ 
ed snag*. As we approach its mouth, it becomes 
a rapid, desolating torrent, loaded with mud — breaking 
over its banks in immense freshets, forming there large 
lakes, inhabited by alligators and wild birds — 
sweeping away whole forests and producing the greatest 
disasters which are said to be increasing in frequency 
and extent. About four thousand million cubic feet 
of solid matter are annually brought down to the 
gulf. The formation of the delta, by these deposits, 
is supposed to have occupied a period of 67,000 
years. “The facility”, says M c Culloch, “afforded by the 
Mississippi, and its various tributaries, for internal 
navigation, are wholly unequalled, except, perhaps, 
by the Amazon and its tributaries, in S. America. In 
so far, indeed, as navigation is concerned, the Missis¬ 
sippi should be regarded, from its great depth and 
comparative freedom from shoals and cataracts, not 
so much a river as a vast, internal sea, a Medi- 


*) Snag: — in the western rivers of the United States, the 
trunk of a large tree firmly fixed to the bottom at one end, and 
rising nearly or quite to the surface at the other end, by which 
steamboats, etc., are often pierced and sunk (Webster’s Diet.) 



208 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 


terranean, in fact—extending through all the central 
and most fertile portion of N. America; and enabling 
its remotest recesses, though 2,000 or 3,000 miles 
inland, to maintain a direct communication, by water, 
with the distant quarters of the globe. It is but 
yesterday, as it were, since the valley of the Missis¬ 
sippi began to be occupied by civilized man, and 
reclaimed from the wilderness; and its astonishing 
increase in population and wealth is principally 
ascribable to the facility, afforded by this noble river, 
for its intercourse with the other parts of America, 
and of the world. The trade and navigation of the 
Mississippi is already, indeed, incomparably greater 
than that of the Ganges, the Danube, the Elbe, or any 
other river of the ancient continent. Let, then, the 
reader, who compares the commerce and importance of 
the Mississippi, at this moment, with its state only half 
a century ago, imagine, if he can, what it must be, 
when all the vast country between the Rocky Mts. 
and Alleghanies has been fully peopled, when New 
Orleans has become a second London, and large cities 
have been built on its most distant affluents! 

“Vast as are the natural capacities of the Missis¬ 
sippi for navigation, they have been, and, no doubt, 
will continue to be, greatly extended by canals and 
artificial means. It is already united with the grand 
chain of lakes and the basin of the St. Lawrence; and 
goods, taken on board at New York, may at present be 
conveyed to New Orleans without being unshipped, 
and conversely.” 


(5/2.) Missouri (i. e., “Mud River”) — longest 
tributary stream of the globe—rises in the Rocky Mts., 
about one mile distant from the Salmon R., one of 
the affluents of the Columbia. About 400 miles from 
its source, it has broken its way through a sublime and 
extraordinary ravine, 5 or 6 miles long and 150 yards 
wide, called the Gates of the Rocky Mts., whose black 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


209 


granite cliffs rise 1200 feet perpendicularly. A short 
distance beyond, it pours its Hoods, during 16 miles, over 
the Great Falls, second only to Niagara, a descent 
altogether of 3Q7 feet. These form the first absolute 
obstacle to navigation, from its mouth, at the Mississippi, 
(about half a mile wide and 2500 miles from its source). 
It flows through well-wooded valleys — extensive and 
beautiful meadows and plains, surrounded by distant 
and lofty mountains — through a boldly undulating 
country — by sterile and arid regions — by immense 
grassy prairies, where the elk, the white bear, the 
antelope and buffalo are followed by the huntsman, 
the trapper and the red Indian. It strikes the Missis¬ 
sippi at a point where that river, to which, in length 
and mass of water, it is greatly superior, has half 
completed its course. Some european geographers con¬ 
sider the Mississippi as only an affluent of this gigan¬ 
tic stream; but the subordinate rank of the Missouri 
is determined by the fact that it flows through regions 
deficient in wood and coal. Its sinuous channel is, more¬ 
over, sometimes shallow and interrupted by sandbars, 
snags and rapids, by timber embedded in its channel 
and by the impetuosity of its current. Some of these 
obstacles are obviously removeable. The entrance of 
the Missouri into the Mississippi is described, by Capt. 
Hall, as particularly striking. “It seemed as if the 
dirty Missouri had insinuated itself under the clear 
Mississippi, for we saw it boiling up at a hundred places. 
First, a small curdling white spot, no bigger than a 
man’s hand, appeared near the surface, which rapidly 
swelled and boiled about, till, in a few seconds, it 
became as large as a steam-boat, spreading itself on all 
sides in gigantic eddies and whirlpools, in a manner 
astonishingly grand and striking. At other places, the 
two currents ran along, side by side, without the least 
intermixture, like oil and water; but this separation 
was never of long continuance, and the contaminating 
Missouri soon conquered the beautiful Mississippi: indeed, 
the stain is never for one moment got rid of, during 

14 


210 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


the 1,200 miles that the stream runs over, before it 
falls into the G. of Mexico.” 

(573.) The St. Lawrence. — The great lakes, 
the largest mass of fresh water in the world, pour 
their surplus floods into G. of St. Lawrence by St. 
Lawrence R., which may be said to rise at the source of 
the St. Louis, W. of L. Superior. It bears different names 
in different parts of its course; between L. Superior 
and L. Huron — the St. Mary; between L. Huron and 
L. Erie — the St. Clair and Detroit; between Lakes 
Erie and Ontario — the Niagara; and from Ontario to 
the sea — the St. Lawrence. Total length, including 
windings,— 2273 m., of which nearly the whole is 
navigable. The Miamis River, western extremity of 
L. Erie, rises so near the northern affluents of the 
Ohio, as to afford means of communication between 
the lake and the Mississippi. The Niagara River, 
thirty-four miles in length, presents that great world- 
curiosity, the Niagara Falls, of which we here say 
nothing, except to quote the opinion of Prof. Ansted 
“that the recession of these falls is probably more 
rapid than is usually supposed, very considerable 
portions of the rock having fallen, within the memory 
of man; this is not to be wondered at, when 15 
million cubic feet of water have been estimated to 
pass over it every minute.” 

(574.) Rivers according to States. — Maine : 
(Fig. 2.) St. John with Aroostook, Allaguash,Wal- 
loostoock and St. Francis—St. Croix — Machias 

— Penobscot with Mattawamkeag and Piscata¬ 
quis— Kennebec with Dead R. — Androscoggin 
(an-dros-cog'-ghin) — Saco — Pise at aqua. — New 
Hampshire : Androscoggin — Saco — Piscataqua — 
Merrimac with Contoocook — Connecticut (Con- 
net'-i-cut).— Vermont : Connecticut with White R. 

— Batten Kill — Otter Creek — Onion R.— 
La Moille R. —Missisque. — Massachusetts : Merri- 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


211 


mac with Nashua — Charles R. — Blackstone — 
Connecticut with Chicopee, Deerfield and 
Westfield — Farmington — Housatonic.— Rhode 
Island : Blackstone — Pawtucket. — Connecticut: 
Thames — Connecticut with Farmington — 
Housatonic.— New York: (Fig. 1.) St. Lawrence with 
Oswegatchie and Racket R. — Saranac — Hud¬ 
son with Batten Kill—Hoosic—Croton — Mo¬ 
hawk R. with Schoharie—Delaware — Susque¬ 
hanna — Chenango — Chemung — Alleghany — 
Cattaraugus — Tonawanda — Genesee — Seneca 

— Oswego — Black R.— Pennsylvania: Delaware 

— Lehigh — Schuylkill (skool'-kil) — Susque¬ 
hanna with N. Branch, West Branch and 
Juniata—Ohio with Beaver, Alleghany, Clarion 
Creek, Youghiogeny (yoh-ho-gah'-nee) and Mo- 
nongahela. — Delaware: Delaware — New Jersey: 
Hudson — Raritan — Little Egg Harbor R. — Gr. 
Egg Harbor R. — Delaware — Maryland: Potomac. 
— E. Virginia: Shenandoa—Potomac—Rappahan¬ 
nock —York R.— James—Appomattox — Staun¬ 
ton.— W. Virginia: South Branch of Potomac — 
Cheat R. — Little Kanawha—Gr. Kanawha with 
Elk, Gauley and Greenbrier — Ohio with Big 
Sandy. — N. Carolina: Chowan — Roanoke — Tar 

— Neuse — Cape Fear — Deep R. — Catawba — 
French Broad — Yadkin — Dan. — S. Carolina: 
Little Pedee—Great Pedee — Lynch’s Creek 

— Black R. — Santee — Con gar ee—W ateree — 
Broad R. — Saluda — Edisto — Comb ah ee — Sa¬ 
vannah. — Georgia: Savannah — Ogeechee — A1 - 
t amah a (Al-ta-ma-haw') with Oconee and Ocmulgee 

— Santilla — St. Mary—Suwanee (su-wah'-nee) 
with Allapahaw — Flint— Chattahoochee — Eto¬ 
wah.*— Florida: St. John’s R. — Kissime — Caloo- 
sahatehee — Pease Cr. — Suwanee — Appalachi- 
cola — Chocktawhatchee — Yellow Water — 
Escambia — Perdido. — Alabama: Pea R. — Es¬ 
cambia— Tensaw — Alabama with Tallapoosa, 


212 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


Coosa, Mobile (mo-beer), Black Warrior, and 
Tombigby— Tennessee R. — Mississippi : Pasca¬ 
goula with Chickasawha and Leaf R. — Pearl 
R.— Big Black R. — Yazoo with Sunflower R. 

— Mississippi.— Louisiana : Mississippi with Red 
River and Washita — Atchafalaya — Calcasieu 

— Sabine. — Texas : Red River — Sabine — Neches 
(Netch'-ez)— Trinity— Rio Brazos (Brah-zos) —Rio 
Colorado — Guadalupe — San Antonio — Nueces 
(Nwa'-ces) —Rio Grande del Norte — Pecos. — Cal¬ 
ifornia : Klamath R. — Sacramento — San Joaquin 

— Colorado— Minnesota: Mississippi — St. Croix 

— Minnesota — Red River of the North — Michi¬ 
gan : Menomonee — Manistee — R. au Sable — 
Saginaw— St. Joseph’s — Kalamazoo — Grand 
River — Muskegon. — Wisconsin : Menomonee — 
Wolf R.—Wisconsin — Mississippi — Black R.— 
Chippeway—St. Croix.— Illinois: Ohio with Little 
Wabash—White R. — Wabash — Mississippi with 
Rock R. — Illinois with Fox and Kankakee — 
Sangamon — Ivaskaskia — Indiana'. Kankakee — 
Tippecanoe—Wabash (Waw'-bash)—White R. 
with West Fork and East Fork — Ohio. — 
Ohio: Ohio — Muskingum — Scioto — Miami — 
Sandusky — Maumee. — Nevada: Humboldt R.— 
Walker R. — Nebraska : Niobrara — Missouri — 
Panee Loup or Wolf R. — Nebraska or Platte 
R. — Republican Fork. — Kansas: Missouri — Re¬ 
publican Fork—Smoky Hill Fork or Kansas 

— Neosho — Arkansas. — Iowa: Mississippi — 
Upper Iowa — Red Cedar — Iowa — Des Moines 

— Chariton — Missouri with Little Sioux. — 
Missouri: Mississippi — Grand R.— Chariton R. 

— Missouri with Gasconade — Osage — Current. 

— Arkansas: Mississippi —White R. with Black 
R. — Arkansas — Bartholomew — Washita. — 
Tennessee: Tennessee with Clinch, Holston, Hi- 
wassee, Elk and Duck R. — Mississippi with 
Hatchee and Obion — Cumberland. — Kentucky: 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


213 


Ohio— Big Sandy R. — Licking— Kentucky — 
RollingR. — GreenR. — Cumberland—Tennes¬ 
see — Mississippi. — Washington Territory : Okonagan 

— Columbia — Yakima. — Oregon : Willamette R. 

— Columbia R. — John Day’s R. — Malheur R. 

— Idaho'. Clark’s Fork — Salmon R. —Lewis or 
Snake R. — Montana: Missouri with Milk R., Yellow 
Stone with Powder R. and Big Horn R. — Dakota: 
Missouri with Big Sioux — Shayenne — James 

— Little Missouri — North Fork — Shyenne R. 

— White R. — Niobrora— Utah: Colorado with 
Green R. — Grand R. — San Juan — Sevier — 
Jordan. — Wyoming :.Big Horn — Powder — Platte 
R. with Laramie — North Fork and Sweet Wa¬ 
ter R. — Colorado: South Fork of Platte R.— 
Republican Fork — Arkansas — Gunnison — 
Grand R. — New Mexico : Rio Pecos — Rio Grande 
del Norte. — Arizona: Colorado with Little Colo¬ 
rado—Rio Gila—Rio San Pedro—Williams Fork. 

— Indian Territory: Red Fork of the Arkansas 
with Arkansas and Neosho — Canadian R. with 
North Fork of Canadian R. — Red R. with False 
Washita and North Fork. — District of Columbia: 
Potomac. 

(575.) Exercises on Rivers. — PI. YI. A. — 

The States, E. of Mississippi, are here reproduced, 
upon a somewhat larger scale than on PI. VII., and 
without names, for a clearer view of the chief rivers. 
The teacher will read the arabic number and, the pupil, 
in reply, will name the river from the corresponding 
number on the map; and also the states through, or 
by which it flows. River 1. — St. Croix, boundary 
line between Maine and New Brunswick.— 
River 2. — Penobscot (Maine). — River 3. — Ken¬ 
nebec (Maine).— River 4 .—Androscoggin (Maine, 
New Hampshire).— River 5. — Merrimac (New 
Hampshire and Massachusetts).— River 6. — Con- 
necticutR.(New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu- 


214 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


setts and Connecticut).— River 7.— Housatonic 
(Massachusetts and Connecticut). — River 8. — 
Hudson (New York and New Jersey). — River 9. 

— Mohawk (New York). — River 10. — Passaic 
(New Jersey).— River 11. — Raritan (New Jersey). 

— River 12. — Delaware (New York, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, New Jersey, Delaware). — River 13. — 
Schuylkill (Pennsylvania). — River 14. — Susque¬ 
hanna (Pennsylvania, Maryland). — River 15 .— 
North branch of Susquehanna (New York, 
Pennsylvania). — River 16. — West branch of 
Susquehanna (Pennsylvania). — River 17. — 
Juniata (Pennsylvania).— 

Remark. — We now take the Ohio with its head waters 
and branches—first, the three rivers which unite to form 
the Ohio; then, the right bank branches, then, the left. 

River 18. — Alleghany (New York, Pennsyl¬ 
vania). — River 19. —Youghiogeny (yoh-ho-gay'-nee) 
(Maryland, Pennsylvania).— River 20. — Monon- 
gahela (W. Virginia, Pennsylvania).— River 21. 
—Ohio (Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
W. Virginia, Kentucky). We now come to right 
hank branches. River 22. — Muskingum (Ohio).— 
River 23. —Scioto (Ohio).— River 24. —Miami (Ohio, 
Indiana).— River 25. —White R. and branches 
(Illinois and Indiana).— River 26. — Wabash (Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois).— Now left hank branches — River 2 7. 

— Gr. Kanawha (N. Carolina, E. Virginia, W. 
Virginia). — River 28. — Kentucky (Kentucky) — 
River 29. — Cumberland (Kentucky, Tennessee). 
— River 30. —Tennessee (E. Virginia, Tennessee, 
Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee again, Ken¬ 
tucky). Now hack to Maryland and the Atlantic basin. 
River 31. — Potomac (Maryland, E. Virginia).— 
River 32. — James R. (E. Virginia). — River 33. — 
Roanoke (E. Virginia, N. Carolina). — River 34. 

— Cape Fear R. (N. Carolina).— River 35. — Gr. 
Pedee R. (N. Carolina, S. Carolina). — River 36. 

— Santee R. (S. Carolina). — 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


215 


Remark. — The branches of the Santee, flowing out 
of N. Carolina, bear the names of Congaree, Saluda, Broad 
and Wateree. 

River 37. — Savannah (between S. Carolina and 
Georgia).— River 38. — Altamaha with branches 
(Georgia). — River 39. — St.John’s R. (Florida) — 
River 40. — Appalachicola with branches (Geor¬ 
gia, Alabama, Florida).— River 41 .—Alabama 
(Georgia, Alabama).— River 42. — Mobile w r ith 
branches (Alabama, Mississippi).— River 43. — 
Mississippi. States on right bank: (Minnesota — 
Iowa — Missouri — Arkansas — Louisiana). — 
States on left bank: (Minnesota again—Wisconsin 

— Illinois—Kentucky—Tennessee—Mississippi 

— Louisiana). Now right bank branches. River 44. — 
Minnesota or St. Peters (Dakota, Minnesota). 
— River 45. —Iowa (Iowa).— River 46. —Des Moines 
(Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri). — River 47 . — 
Missouri. — River 48. —White R. (Missouri, Ar¬ 
kansas).— River49. —Arkansas (Colorado, Kansas, 
Indian Territory, Arkansas).— River 50. —Red 
River (Texas, Indian Territory, Arkansas, 
Louisiana). Now left bank branches: River 51. — 
Winconsin (Michigan, Wisconsin). — River 52. — 
Illinois (Illinois).— River 53. —Yazoo (Missis¬ 
sippi).— River 54. —Sabine R., (forming part of bound¬ 
ary line between Louisiana and Texas). — River 55. — 
St. Lawrence (boundary line for some distance between 
State of New York and Canada.) — River 56. — Ottawa 
(branch of St. Lawrence in British America.) 


(576.) Comparative Dimensions (Plate VI. A 
and B.) — These two maps are drawn on the same 
scale, that the comparative dimensions of countries, lakes, 
seas, etc., may be determined at a glance, or, more 
correctly, with a pair of compasses. The teacher will 
require no aid to lead the pupil through the proper 
exercises: — such as, for example, the following: 

Massachusetts corresponds in size to the Kgd. of 


216 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


Wurtemberg— Maryland to Holland — Ireland to Maine 

— the Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal would reach 
from New York City to the southern frontier of N. 
Carolina, etc. 

(577.) Towns according to States. — Maine: 

(Fig. 2.) Mattawamkeag — Calais — Eastport 

— Machias — Ellsworth — Bucksport — Belfast 

— Rockland — Waldobo rough — Wise asset 

— Bath — Brunswick — Portland — Saco — 
Biddeford — Wells — York — Berwick — 
Alfred — Paris — Andover — Farmington — Mos¬ 
cow — Solon — Dover — Old Town — Bangor — 
Newport—Norridgewock—Water ville—Augusta 

— Auburn.— New Hampshire : Lancaster — Fran¬ 
conia — Haverhill — Conway — Hanover with 
Dartmouth College — Plymouth — Ossipee — 
Gilford — Canterbury—N ewport — Charlestown 

— Great Falls — Concord—Dover — Portsmouth 

— Exeter — Manchester — Keene —Winchester— 
Amherst—Nashua. Vermont : St. Albans — Derby 
—Irasburg — Guildhall—Danville—Burlington 
—Montpelier—Middlebury—Chelsea—Newbury 

— Norwich — Rutland —W indsor — Manchester 

— Bellows Palls — Bennington —Newfane — 
Brattleboro.— Massachusetts : Greenfield — Deer¬ 
field — Lowell — Lawrence — Haverhill — New- 
buryport —Andover — Gloucester — Lexington 

— Lynn — Salem —N ah ant — Concord— Boston 
with Charlestown, Roxbury, Cambridge, Dor¬ 
chester — Dedham — Abington — Marshfield — 
Plymouth — Chatham — Barnstable — Nantucket 

— New Bedford — Fall River—Taunton—Wor¬ 
cester— Springfield — Chicopee—Northampton 

— Lenox — Pittsfield — Amherst. — Rhode Island: 
Smithfield — Pawtucket (half in Rhode Island and 
half in Massachusetts) — Providence with North 
Providence —Warwick — Bristol — Newport — 
South Kingston. — Connecticut : Sharon — Suffield 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


217 


— Stafford — Tolland — Norwich — Stonington 

— New London — New Haven — Bridgeport — 
Fairfield — Norwalk — Stamford — Danbury — 
Waterbury— Litchfield — Middletown — Hart- 
fort .—New YorJc:‘( Fig. 1.) NiagaraFalls—Lewiston 

— Lock port — Albion — Rochester — Oswego — 
Volney—Pulaski — Sackett’s Harbor —Watertown 

— Ogdensburg— Canton — Potsdam — Malone — 
Rouse’s Point —Plattsburg — Ticonderoga — 
Whitehall (Fig. 2.) — Caldwell — Queensbury — 
Sandy Hill—Saratoga—Johnstown—Schenectady 

— Cohoes — Lansingburg — Troy — Albany — 
Hudson — Cats kill — S auger ties — Kingston — 
Rondout — Poughkeepsie (Po-keep'-see) — Fish- 
kill—Newburg—West Point—Sing Sing—White 
Plains—New York—Brooklyn—(Fig. 2.) Hunting- 
ton— Greenport—Sag Harbor—River he ad—Islip 

— (Fig. 1.) Port Jervis — Monticello — Delhi — 
Binghampton — Owego—Elmira—Bath—Angelica 

— Olean — Cuba — Ellicottville — Maysville — 
Dunkirk — Buffalo — Batavia — Lyons — Canan¬ 
daigua — Geneseo — Geneva — Havana —Ithaca 

— Auburn — Syracuse — Salina — Cortland — 
Norwich — Cooperstown — Morrisville — Utica 

— Rome — Trenton Falls.— 

Remark. — The close proximity of populous and 
growing towns, particularly near New York City, requires 
the omission of various names, such, for instance, as, Yonkers 

— Tarrytown — Greenburg — Morrisiana— Flushing 

— Newtown—Oyster Bay—Hempstead, and others. 

New Jersey: (Fig. 1.) Newton — Belvedere — 
Orange City — Paterson — Jersey City — New¬ 
ark— Elizabeth — New Brunswick —(PI. VII.) 
Princeton — Trenton — Camden — (Fig. 2.) 
Hoboken. — Pennsylvania: Oil City — Titusville — 
Erie — Athens—(Fig. 2.) Towanda — Milford — 
Wilkesbarre — (PI. VII.) Easton — Pottsville — 
Reading—Norristown—Philadelphia—Lancaster 
—Harrisburg—York—Chambers!) urg—Browns- 


218 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


ville — Pittsburg — Alleghany City. — Delaware: 
Wilmington — New Castle — Delaware City — 
Dover. — Maryland: Cumberland — Hagerstown — 
Frederick — Baltimore — Annapolis — E. Virginia: 
Winchester — Harpers Ferry — Alexandria — 
Fredericksburg — Charlottesville — Richmond 
—Williamsburg—Yorktown — Fortress Monroe 
—Norfolk—Portsmouth—Danville—Petersburg 
—Abingdon—Lynchburg—Lexington — Staunton. 
— N. Carolina: Weldon—Edenton—Tarboro—Raleigh 
(raw'-lee) —Newbern—Wilmington—F ayetteville— 
Charlotte—Salisbury.— S. Carolina: Spartanburg— 
Yorkville— Camden — Columbia— Georgetown 

— Charleston — Beaufort — Barnwell — Hamburg 

— Abbeville —Anderson.— Georgia: Athens — 
Augusta —Milledgeville — Savannah — Darien 

— Columbus — Macon — La Grange — Griffin — 
Atlanta. — Florida: Pensacola — Quincy— Talla¬ 
hassee— St. Marks—Fernandina— Jacksonville 

— St. Augustine — Key West.— Alabama: Florence 

— Decatur — Huntsville — Talladega — Mont¬ 
gomery—Mobile — Selma — Gainesville—Tusca¬ 
loosa.— Mississippi: Holly Springs—Aberdeen — 
Columbus —Jackson —Vicksburg — Natchez. — 
Louisiana: Shreveport—Harrisonburg—Bayou Sara 
(bi'-oo-sah'-ra) — Baton Rouge — Madisonville — 
Lafayette-—New Orleans —Algiers—Donaldson- 
ville — Opelousas — Alexandria — Natchitoches 
(natch'-i-totchiz). — Texas: Houston — Galveston — 
Matagorda — Corpus Christi — Brownsville — 
San Antonio — Austin. — California: Humboldt 
City — Shasta —Nevada — Marysville — Placer- 
ville —Sacramento — Stockton —Sonora — Mil- 
lerton — Los Angeles — Ft. Yuma — San Diego 

— Santa Barbara — Monterey — San Jose —- 
San Francisco — Benecia. — Minnesota: Minnea¬ 
polis — St. Paul — Ft. Snelling — Still¬ 
water—Has tin gs City—R edwing—Wabashaw— 
Winona—Mankato. — Michigan: Sault St. Mary 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


219 


— Saginaw —Port Huron — Detroit —Ypsilanti 
—Ann Arbor — Monroe — Kalamazoo — Jackson 

— Lansing — Grand Rapids — Grand Haven.— 
Wisconsin: Superior City — Green Bay — Oshkosh 

— Fond du Lac — Sheboygan — Milwaukee — 
Racine —Kenosha — Beloit—J anesville — Madi¬ 
son— Prairie du Chien — Portage — La Crosse 

— Beaver Dam —Watertown —Waukesha — 
Prescott.— Illinois: Galena — Rockford — Chicago 

— Joliet — Aurora — Ottawa City — Galesburg 

— Peoria — Bloomington — Quincy— Jackson¬ 
ville — Springfield — Alton—Vandalia — Belle¬ 
ville— Kaskaskia — Cairo.— Indiana: South Bend 

— Fort Wayne — Lafayette — Indianopolis — 
Richmond—Terre Haute—Madison—New Albany 

— Evansville. — Ohio: Toledo — Sandusky City 

— Cleveland — Steubenville — Zanesville — 
Marietta—Portsmouth — Chillicothe—Cincinnati 

— Hamilton—Dayton — Springfield — Columbus. 

— Nevada: Gold Hill—Virginia City — Austin — 
Jacobsville — Aurora — Carson City — Dayton. 

— Nebraska: Omaha City — Bellevue—Nebraska 
City—Brownville — Fort Kearney. — Kansas: 
Marysville —Atchison— Leavenworth —Topeka 

— Lecompton — Lawrence —Wyandot — Mound 
City—Iola—Ft. Atkinson — Fort Riley. — Iowa: 
Dubuque — Davenport — Iowa City— Muscatine 
—Washington — Burlington — Fort Madison — 
Keokuk — Oskaloosa — Des Moines — Council 
Bluffs. — Missouri: St. Joseph — Hannibal City — 
St. Charles — St. Louis — St. Genevieve — 
Jefferson City — Lexington — Independence — 
Kansas City — Platte City. — Arkansas: Fayette¬ 
ville — Batesville — Helena — Arkansas — Napo¬ 
leon — Columbia — Camden — Fulton — Fort 
Smith—Van Buren — Little Rock — Pine Bluff. 

— Tennessee: Clarksville — Lebanon— Knoxville 

— Chattanooga — Murfrees borough — Columbia 

— Memphis — Jackson — Nashville. — Kentucky: 


220 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


C o vington—N ewport — Mays ville —Frankfort— 
Lexington — Bowling Green — Paduca — Hawes - 
ville — Louisville — Danville. — W. Virginia : W h e e - 
ling — Parkersburg — Clarksburg — Charleston 

— Wyoming — Guyandotte. — Washington Territory: 
New Dungeness—Port Townsend—Whatcom 

— Olympia — Nesqually or Nisqually—Stei- 
lacoom — Ft. Walla-Walla — Ft. Vancouver — 
Pacific City. — Oregon : Astoria — Portland — 
Oregon City — Dalles City — Auburn — Jackson¬ 
ville— Empire City — Eugene City—Salem.— 
Idaho: Lewiston e—Florence—Ft. Hall—Ho 11 a day 

— Silver City — Boisee City. — Montana: Ft. Ben¬ 
ton—Virginia City.— Dakota: Ft. Union — Ft. 
William — Ft. Clark — Ft. Pierre—Yankton.— 
Utah: Ogden City — Ft. Bridger — Gr. Salt Lake 
City — Lehi — Provo — Springville — Fillmore 
City. — Wyoming: Ft. Connor — Ft. Laramie.— 
Colorado: Central City—Denver City—Golden 
City—Colorado City.— Arizona: Prescott—Tucson 
— New Mexico: Taos — Santa Fe — Albuquerque — 
Belen — Me sill a — Ft. Film ore. — Indian Territory: 
Thalequa — Ft. Arbuckle — Ft. Washita — Ft. 
Tow son. — District of Columbia: Washington — 
Georgetown — Alexandria. 

(578.) Remarks on United States. — We 

abstain from any historical sketch. The American 
youth must thoroughly study the history of his country, 
elsewhere. We translate and compress, however, a 
passage from a German work, u Meyer's Universum” 
more valuable as the unbiassed opinion of a foreigner. 

“In the U. States”, says this writer, “we find all the 
natural conditions requisite for the existence of one 
single political organization, destined to become 
superior, in extent, power and prosperity, to the 
empires of Sesostris, Alexander and Augustus; and 
not equaled by any existing country. The Creator 
has spread, over this favored land, fertility— a uni- 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


221 


form facility of internal communication — a singularly 
vast and rich river-system (which Humboldt called 
the life-giving element, big with future consequences, 
and binding, by one common interest, the entire 
population together), and a lavish abundance of the 
two most valuably minerals, coal and iron. These 
blessings have been bestowed, in the same degree, 
upon no other region of the globe. 

“Nature herself has imposed, upon the U. States, 
the necessity of one \permanent, 'political system . The 
exterior configuration and the structure of the interior 
surface, equally indicate that any separation can be 
but transitory. The South,* inspired by its separate 
interest, may dissolve its union with the North; the 
West may break away from the East; but, they will 
speedily be compelled to reunite, by the want of 
natural, interior boundaries, and of all aids of disjunc¬ 
tion, in a land obviously formed for mutual intercourse. 
The struggles, and jealous competitions of independent 
states, would produce collisions; and the strongest Power 
would soon compel all the weaker, back again into 
one system, as the sun holds the planets in their 
orbits. One ultimate union must result from the 
peculiar configuration of the great interior river-basin, 
which, by its remarkable uniformity, necessitates a 
corresponding uniformity in language, customs and 
political organization. Hence the rapid transformation, 
and amalgamation, of the affluent heterogeneous 
nationalities; often erroneously ascribed to the striking 
assimilation-power of the anglo-american race. It 
was the obvious will of God, as, in contrast to the 
structure of the eastern half of the globe, he modeled 
the outline of the new continent, that it should be the 
seat of one great nationality, of sufficient power to 
assimilate to itself all tributary elements. 

Nature has equally indicated the U. States as the 


* This, bear in mind, was written before the abolition of 
slavery and before the great rebellion. 



222 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


seat of one democratic and commercial state, which, 
as such, must be inspired with a passion for enlarging 
its territory. Its position, between the two great 
oceans of the globe, and the vast number of 
internal rivers, invite the American to navigation 
and foreign commerce. Agriculture and trade possess 
less attraction. The native American is more likely 
to become a merchant or mariner, than a farmer; and 
to leave the laborious, and less profitable cultivation 
of the soil, to the european emigrant. Commerce, 
however, developes the lust of gold, habitual excitement 
and the spirit of speculation. 

Should the population increase in the past pro¬ 
portion, this country will reach its culminating point 
in about 400 years. In the mean time, it offers ample 
room for the immense european emigration. It will 
then have a population of 500 millions. As the price 
of labor becomes cheaper, and the resources of the 
soil and industry, the mines, the waterpower, steam, 
etc., shall be fully developed, it will supply all the 
countries of the earth with its produce and manufactures. 

If it be true that Europe has, during so many 
centuries, held the sceptre of the Old World, because 
of its superiority, to Asia and Africa, in the commer¬ 
cial, and other facilities, offered by its broken, indented 
coasts, peninsulas, bays and seas, and its interior 
river-systems — what a role is reserved for the United 
States, which, in extent of coast, internal lakes, seas, 
natural and artificial navigable streams, etc., already 
surpasse Europe fivefold; and whose colossal mineral 
and other resources increase with every year.” 

We cannot lay the above remarks before the 
American youth, without reminding them, that the 
great world - empires, described by history, fell into 
corruption and decay, because of their lust for 
gold, their ambition, pride, luxury, and sensual enjoy¬ 
ments, their ignorance of, or disobedience to, God. 
The american continent, thus wonderfully constructed, 
was, doubtless, at a later period, given to man, that 


REMARKS GN EARTH’S SURFACE. 


223 


he might build up a great political fabric, upon a new 
system, more in harmony with the lessons of experience 
and with the light of Revelation. This is our mission 
as a people. It shduld be our aim to surpass 
other nations, not in wealth, luxury, pride, territory 
and military conquests, but in virtue, temperance, 
justice, righteousness, humility, faith in God and 
obedience to his Word. These, and these only, will 
permanently secure to us the blessings of peace, 
rational liberty and Christian civilization. 


MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS ON EARTH’S 
SURFACE. 

(579.) In addition to what has been already said 
of the mountainous regions of the globe, let us rapidly 
(PI. II) cast our eyes over the rest of the earth’s sur¬ 
face, and mark the principal plains, table-lands, etc. 
And first, America (here read section 247). 

(580.) Plains and Valleys of N. America. — 

One vast plain extends from Arctic Ocean to G. of 
Mexico, and from Alleghanies to Rocky Mts., interrupted 
only by a more elevated region, near the parallel of 
the five lakes. A large portion is covered with 
immense, magnificent forest trees, while hundreds of 
square miles are occupied by monotonous tracts of 
sand, clothed only with gigantic pines, denominated 
pine-barrens. That part, N. of parallel intersecting 
the five lakes, is, in a great degree, characterized by the 
sterility of the frigid zone; but the rest (an area of one 
and a half million square miles) is of almost unexampled 
fertility. Some parts of this plain, in the northern 
United States, bear the name of 'prairies, — in the 
southern, savannas (144, 145). This plain, in the 
United States, being bounded on the E. and W. by 
mountains, forms three principal valleys: the valley of 
the St. Lawrence, the great valley of the Mississippi 
and the valley of the Ohio. 


224 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


(581.) Plains and Valleys of S. America. — 

The eye here easily follows several great valleys, 
spreading into vast plains: the valley of the Orinoco 
— the valley of the Amazon — the valley of the La 
Plata or Parana. The most level part of the earth’s 
surface is said to be a tract in the valley of the 
Orinoco, greater in extent than France, a large part 
of it entirely destitute of trees, called llanos (146 — 149). 
The plains of the Amazon valley are called silvas, 
from their mighty and impenetrable forests occupying 
more than one million square miles, 200,000 of which 
are annually laid under water by the inundations of 
the Amazon. Humboldt says, these forests truly merit 
the name of “primeval”. “The intense, tropical heat 
and the abundant moisture acting upon the wonderfully 
rich soil has”, says Prof. Ansted, “produced an inconceiv¬ 
able exuberance of vegetable and animal life, which 
actually offers a bar to civilization as great as the 
sterility of the African desert”. Farther S., 25 th 

parallel, from the valley of the La Plata to Str. 
of Magellan, extend treeless plains, about 2000 miles 
in length and averaging 300 miles in breadth, called 
pampas. 

(582.) Plains and Valleys of Europe and 
Asia — are distinguished without difficulty. Observe 
the level parts of England, Scotland and Ireland, 
Wales and North Scotland being mountainous. See 
what a stupendous plain, the largest in the world, 
crosses N. Europe, interrupted only by Ural Mts., and 
extends nearly to Behring Str. Leaning toward the 
N., it rolls its mighty rivers into the German and 
Baltic Seas and the Arctic Ocean. In different parts, 
it bears the local names — Sarmatian Plain, traversed 
by Oder, Vistula, Niemen and Dwina — Siberian Plain, 
that vast level of N. Asia, some frozen parts of which 
(PI. II.) are called tundras. — Kirghiz Steppes, in the 
neighborhood of Caspian Sea and Sea of Aral. Trace 
the valleys of the Danube (traversing the Hungarian 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


225 


plain, 300 miles long, and from 300 to 400 feet 
above the sea-level) — the Po (winding through the 
beautiful plain of Lombardy) — the Rhone — the Rhine 
— the Amoor — then the Ganges and Indus (flowing 
through the plain of Hindostan) — the Tigris and 
Euphrates, uniting into one stream. In south-eastern 
and Asiatic Russia, and in the flats of Tartary, these 
tracts are termed steppes (from a Russian word, signi¬ 
fying barren). A wilderness (in India called a jungle) 
differs from a desert, as being often covered with 
luxuriant vegetation. The term is applied also to 
wild, barren spots among rocky mountains, as, for 
ex. in Arabia. These plains, in various countries, 
have different characteristics. Here, they form a vast 
extent of frozen ground or snow — there, barren, 
burning sands—here, luxuriant gardens of tropical 
vegetation — there, gloomy desolate wastes; now, a 
monotonous level, varied by moderately sized hills, 
without order or system — again, for many miles, the 
soil rises into long waves or undulations perfectly 
uniform in structure. 

(583.) Plains and Valleys of Africa. — The 

most remarkable plain of the globe is perhaps the 
desert of Sahara—about 2500 miles long by 1200 miles 
broad — extending from the valley of the Nile to the 
Atlantic and even projecting its submarine sand-banks, 
far beyond the coast, into the ocean (PI. III). The 
eastern and more favored portion, known as the Lybian 
Desert, is generally formed, not of sand, but of hard, 
horizontally-bedded sandstone rock, perfectly smooth 
and level. The western portion is one white, solitary, 
desolate, awful sea of burning sand. “No animal — 
not even an insect — breaks the dread silence; nor is a 
tree or a shrub to be distinguished during days of 
incessant travel. In the glare of noon, the air quivers 
with the heat reflected from the red sand, and the 
night is chilly, under the clear sky sparkling with its 
host of stars” (Ansted). Oases, however, (151) are found 

15 


226 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


at intervals. Among the frightful features of this desert 
are the simoon, a hot, dry wind which, sometimes, for 
12 hours, so fills the air with sand, as almost to 
obscure the sun — and the absence of rain, except 
during short intervals, sometimes 20 years apart. Hot 
springs are found, surrounded by a luxuriant vegetation 
— salt mines, etc. Caravans cross it in various directions, 
in danger of death and great suffering, from thirst, and 
from exposure to the simoon. 

(584.) Desert of Kalahari — in the southern 
extremity of Africa, between Orange R. and L. Ngami 
(PI. II.), sometimes called the South African Sahara , 
although, by no means, an uninhabitable, sterile waste. 
It is occupied by the Bushmen and the black Kalahari, and 
inhabited by immense numbers of wild beasts: ostriches, 
antelopes, buffaloes, elephants, giraffes, lions, leopards, 
panthers, hyenas, etc. A part lies within the tropics. 
The surface is sometimes a waterless, sandy waste, 
sometimes a vast sea of grass which, on the E., is 
succeeded by thick impenetrable forests. The town, 
Lattako, lies in the neighborhood. 

(585.) Table-lands, etc., of N. America. — 

Thousands of feet above these lower plains, spread the 
higher table-lands or plateaux, found not only on 
continents, but on islands. In N. America, the great 
plain of Mississippi R. rises on the N. to the heights 
before mentioned, about the parallel of the five lakes, 
and on the W., to a wide and lofty plateau, 7000 to 
9000 feet high which occupies a great part of Mexico 
and extends also to California, where its elevation is 
about 6000 feet above the sea. 

(586.) Table-lands of S. America. — Besides 
the elevated tracts of the Guiana and Brazilian Mts., 
the summit of the Andes presents table-lands of more 
limited extent, but far greater height. That of Desa- 
guadero (Bolivia and Peru) — 500 miles long, 50 miles 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


227 


broad, including L. Titicaca and city of Potosi — lies 
higher than 13,000 feet. The table-land of Quito is 
10,000 feet high — 200 miles long — 30 miles broad. 

(587.) Table-lands of Europe and Asia. — 

In Europe, the central plateau of Spain rises 3000 feet. 
From the Adriatic and the Balkan Mts., an elevated 
plateau extends across Asia to Pacific, bearing, upon 
its gigantic pedestal, the loftiest mountains of the globe. 
It includes the table-land of Persia — the plains of 
Armenia — the plateau of Tibet — the desert of Gobi, 
etc. The latter has not been thoroughly explored. Its 
mean height is given at 4000 feet. 

(588.) Table-lands of Africa. — Southern 
Africa appears to rise to a considerable elevation, in 
successive terraces, from the coasts to the interior, and 
even a considerable portion of the desert is an elevated 
table-land, bearing mountains estimated, by Dr. Barth, 
at from 3000 to 5000 feet high. 

(589.) Gulf Stream. — Many other interesting 
subjects invite attention: — winds — the ocean — tides — 
reefs — keys — whirlpools — eddies — extensive tracts of 
marine weed (154 —164) — immense currents resembling 
broad, rapid rivers sweeping through the surrounding 
ocean. Our limited space excludes these from this little 
volume. We have only room to allude to one remarkable 
current — the Gulf Stream — a vast body of water, trace¬ 
able back as far as the Indian Ocean, and even the 
Pacific, proceeding, N. W. across the Atlantic, into G. 
of Mexico, and, assisted by the river-current of the 
Mississippi, passing out again into the Atlantic, between 
Florida and Cuba, where it is known as the Gulf Stream. 
It extends upw r ards of 3000 miles, and occupies 78 days 
in its progress, with a velocity relaxing from 120 miles 
per day, at the mouth of G. of Mexico, to 10, in the 
vicinity of the Azores, where it is lost in the Atlantic. 
The warm air and vapor, borne from the tropical 

15 * 


228 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


regions, by this vast mass of heated water, exercise a 
remarkable influence upon the climate of western 
Europe, occasion the verdure of Gr. Britain and 
Ireland, and soften the temperature even as far north 
as Spitzbergen; while the shores of the American 
continent, in the same latitude as the British Islands, 
are scarcely inhabitable on account of the cold. Sir 
John Herschel thinks the excavation of the G. of 
Mexico and Caribbean Sea, an effect of the action 
of the gulf stream which will, sooner or later, cut 
through the Isthmus of Darien, leaving only a chain of 
islands. 

To whatever cause may be ascribed the forms of 
continents, it is admitted that they have been submerged, 
and the ocean bed laid dry, more than once. 

(590.) Depth of the oc ean. — Attempts to 
measure the greatest depth of the ocean, have been 
unsuccessful (PI. IV). In 1843, Ross measured the 
Atlantic off coast of Brazil, with a line 27,600 feet, 
and found no bottom. In 1852, Denham found no 
bottom with a line 46,236 feet, and, in the same year, 
Parker (American frigate “Congress”) with a line 
49,800 feet. Such soundings, however, are not reliable, 
there being no certainty that the line sinks directly toward 
the bottom. The general opinion is that the depressions 
of the land, beneath the ocean, do not far exceed 27 
or 28,000 feet. The greatest depth of the N. Atlantic 
is supposed to be at a point south of, and near, the 
great shoal of Newfoundland. 

(591.) Primeval Forests. — We conclude this 
chapter by a rapid sketch of tropical nature, compressed 
from Humboldt, Daniel, etc. The term “primeval 
forest” is often used vaguely. It belongs particularly 
to the great Brazilian forest which is so impenetrable 
that it is scarcely possible, even with the axe, to clear 
a passage between the enormous tree-trunks, eight to 
twelve feet in diameter. This forest includes a large 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


229 


part of the interior of S. America. Its area, many times 
greater than that of Germany, exhibits a wonderful 
luxuriance, resulting from the combined influence of 
extreme moisture and high temperature. It is vain to 
ask, says Humboldt, of what trees it consists, as a 
countless number of families are crowded together and 
new forms are always presented. 

(592.) Nature on Equator — a South Amer¬ 
ican River — Day. — During the noontide 
hours, the mighty river rolls on, sparkling and 
flashing. Nature lies silent under the equatorial heat. 
The sun is directly in the zenith. Not a breath of air. 
The naked rocks and bowlders* are covered with 
immense numbers of iguanas, lizards and spotted sala¬ 
manders, Avhich, motionless, with uplifted head and open 
mouth, delight to inhale the burning air. Serpents, 
whose colors eclipse the most brilliant flowers, come 
forth, from hollow tree-trunks, or hiding places in the 
ground, sun themselves on the rocks, or, winding up 
the trunks and branches of trees, watch for insects or 
birds. The crocodile lies in numbers on the shore, 
waiting for the capibara (ca-pib'a-ra), an animal between 
the hog and the rabbit, 3 or 4 feet long, which is 
devoured, in the forest, by the tiger, in the river, 
by the crocodile. The animals all fear, watch, hate and 
avoid each other. Most of the living creatures seek 
rest and shade. The larger beasts sleep or sculk in 
the black depths of the forest. Butterflies, of strangely 
gorgeous hues, flutter from flower to flower, or drink 
at the cool streamlet. The huge owl, sits motionless 
upon his shaded branch, impatient for the night. 
Myriads of chafers flash, like glittering jewels, through 
the air. Upon invisible wings, the humming bird 

* Bowlder: — a stone or rock, found on the sea shore, 
and in, or near rivers, worn smooth or rounded by the action 
of the water. Any rock apparently transported from a distant 
place by water, glaciers etc. Such masses, of enormous size, 
are sometimes found upon the highest mountains. 


230 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


bangs in the sunshine, clothed in the glory of the 
rainbow. Nature would lie as in the stillness of death, 
but for the fluttering and humming of millions of 
insects in the lower strata of the atmosphere, inter¬ 
rupted, occasionally, by the blowing of the freshwater 
dolphin, the distant scream of a monkey, or the deep 
tones of the toad and frog, blending with the monotonous 
chant of the cicada and locusts. At length the burning 
orb descends toward the west. The noonday heat begins 
to subside. The beast-world awakens and comes forth 
with extraordinary activity. Monkeys, by hundreds, 
issue from the forests, sporting, leaping, fighting, 
screaming. Birds of wonderful form and magnificent 
plumage, appear on all sides, now sweeping onward in 
solitary flight, now swarming in numbers along the 
odor-breathing shores. Flocks of flamingoes, and other 
waterbirds, occasionally darken the air like a cloud. 
The whole parrot-tribe, conspicuous from their striking 
tints of deep blue, green or red, pierce the ear with 
discordant screeches. The toucan taps the tree-branch 
with his hollow bill and utters his plaintive cry for 
rain. 

(593.) Night. — The sun goes down. The 

countless creatures of the day seek rest. The 

night animals, among them the bloodthirsty vam¬ 
pire-bat, awake; the beasts of prey come forth, 

raging with hunger. Millions of flashing fire-flies 
illuminate the darkness. The wild nocturnal sounds 
render sleep impossible. Various utterances of the ape- 
tribe are heard; sometimes, soft, plaintive, almost 

flute-like; again, breaking into shrill, passionate discords. 
The black jaguar (jag'-u-ar) (American tiger — largest 
and most blood-thirsty variety) is the terror of the 
whole monkey-tribe. His screams often proceed from 
the high tree-branches, mingled with the sharp screeches 
and wailings of the monkeys seeking to escape. The 
cougar adds his roar. Now, these noises are heard 
singly; now, they break forth spontaneously in one 


REMARKS ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 


231 


universal chorus, filling the vast forests with shrieks 
of rage, pain and despair. They appear to originate 
in some accidental combat. The jaguar, for instance, 
pursues the peccary (pec'ca-ry). The latter, flying in 
terror, breaks, with crashing noise, through the 
interwoven branches which impede his flight. The 
apes, on the tree-tops, terrified by the sound, join 
their cries. This arouses the larger animals and alarms 
innumerable birds, till the whole solemn forest-world 
is thrown into disturbance. Such general commotions 
occur more frequently on stormy nights, amid violent 
torrents of rain, when flashes of lightening illuminate 
the scene, and peals of thunder enhance the tumult 
and disorder of the earth. 




232 


POPULATION TABLE. 


POPULATION TABLE. 


(594.) It is not possible to say with certainty how 
many human beings are, at this time, living on the 
globe. All the usual estimates are conjectural and 
probably vary from the truth by many millions. 
The general impression is that the total number 
amounts to 1350 millions. The following table, prin¬ 
cipally on the authority of the “Geographisches Jahr- 
buch” of Justus Perthes, Gotha, 1866, is perhaps the 
latest and most reliable account of the population of 
different continents, countries, etc. 


AMERICA. 74,500,000 

EUROPE. 285,000,000 

ASIA. 798,600,000 

AFRICA (about 50 to 60 million negroes) . . . 188,000,000 

AUSTRALIA. 1,116,970 

N. AMERICA. 

Danish America (total). 114,622 

Greenland. 9,404 

Iceland. 66,987 

Danish West Indies (Santa Cruz). 38,231 

British America (total). 4,404,396 

Possessions N. of United States (total) . . . 3,444,914 

(besides 155,000 independent Indians.) 

Upper Canada. 1,396,091 

Lower Canada. 1,111,566 

New Brunswick . 252,047 

Nova Scotia (with Cape Breton). 332,264 

Prince Edward 1. 80,857 

Newfoundland. 122,638 



















POPULATION TABLE. 233 

British Columbia. 50,000 

Vancouver 1. 23,000 

Red River Settlement. 65,000 

British West Indies (total). 933,847 

Bahama Is. (5,500 white). 35,287 

Jamaica (13,800 white). 441,264 

Virgin Is. 6,051 

Dominica. 25,065 

Barbadoes (16,500 white). 152,727 

Trinidad (5,340 white). 84,438 

British Honduras or Balize. 25,635 

Bermuda, (or Somers) Is. 11,451 

French America (total). 277,954 

French Fishery Is. (St. Pierre, Miquelon) . 2,497 

French West Indies. 275,457 

Guadeloupe. 118,867 

Martinique. 136,956 

United States of America, including Russian America 31,980,694 

Mexico. 8,259,000 

Republics of Central America (total). 2,650,471 

Guatemala. 1,180,000 

San Salvador. 600,000 

Honduras. 350,000 

Nicaragua. 400,000 

Costa Rica. 120,471 

West Indies (total). 3,935,352 

Spanish West Indies. 1,982,817 

Cuba (of whom 793,484 white). 1,396,530 

Porto Rico (300,406 white). 583,308 

Swedish West Indies (St. Bartholomew) . . 2,800 

Dutch West Indies (Curapoa, etc.). 31,931 

I. of Hayti (total). 708,500 

Rep. of Hayti. 572,000 

Rep. of San Domingo. 136,500 

S. AMERICA. 

Columbia (of whom 126,000 independent Indians) 2,900,000 

Venezuela. 2,200,000 

Guiana (total). 246,795 

French (about »/ 15 white). 27,137 

Dutch (of whom 7500 maroons*). 57,632 

British (143,538 negroes). 162,026 

Brazil (1,715,000 slaves) . .. 10,045,000 

Paraguay. 1,337,439 


* Maroon — a name given to free blacks living on the 
mountains in the West Indies. 









































234 


POPULATION TABLE. 


Uruguay. 240,965 

Argentine Confederation (besides 40,000 independent 

Indians). 1,377,000 

Patagonia. 30,000 

Chili (independent Indians 10,000). 1,676,243 

Bolivia (245,000 Indians). 1,987,352 

Peru. 2,500,000 

Ecuador (200,000 Indians). 1,300,000 

EUROPE. 

Great Britain and Ireland (total). 29,935,404 

England and Wales. 21,210,020 

Scotland. 3,153,413 

Ireland. 5,571,971 

Possessions in Europe (Heligoland, Gibraltar, 

Malta). 165,317 

Total population of entire British Empire ., 174,156,673 

Sweden and Norway (total). 5,560,108 

Sweden. 4,070,061 

Norway. 1,490,047 

Russia in Europe (total). 67,619,425 

Russia Proper. 61,061,801 

Poland. 4,840,466 

Finland. 1,717,158 

Total population of the Russian Empire . . 76,083,818 

Germany. 38,016,968 

North German League (total). 29,220,922 

Prussia Proper (with Lauenburg) before 

1866 . 19,304,843 

Added in 1866: 

Hanover. 1,923,492 

Hesse-Cassel. 737,283 

Nassau. 466,014 

Frankfort City (and territory) .... 89,837 

Territory ceded by Bavaria. 32,976 

Territory ceded by Hesse-Darmstadt 75,102 

Schleswig-Holstein. 960,996 

Total population of Prussia. . 23,590,543 

Saxony. 2,343,994 

Mecklenburg - Schwerin. 552,612 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz . 99,060 

Oldenburg. 301,812 

Saxe-Weimar. 280,201 

Brunswick. 292,708 

Anhalt. 193,046 

Saxe - Meiningen. 178,065 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 164,527 







































POPULATION TABLE. 235 

Saxe-Altenburg. 141,839 

Lippe- Detmold. 111,336 

Waldeck. 59,143 

Schwarzburg - Rudolstadt. 73,752 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. 66,189 

Reuss. 130,396 

Schaumburg-Lippe. 31,382 

Hesse-Darmstadt, N. of It. Main .... 225,696 

Hamburg. 229,941 

Lubeck. 50,614 

Bremen . 104,066 

Bavaria . 4,774,464 

Wurtemberg. 1,748,328 

Hesse - Darmstadt, S. of R. Main . 816,902 

Baden. 1,433,551 

Lichtenstein. 7,994 

Germanic Confederation before the war of 1866 . 46,057,916 

Belgium. 4,940,570 

Holland (total). 3,735,682 

Holland Proper. 3,529,108 

Luxemburg. 206,574 

Denmark . 1,617,170 

Portugal (total) . 4,351,509 

Continent. 3,987,861 

Azores. 251,884 

Madeiras. 111,764 

Spain (total). 16,302,625 

Continent. 15,752,607 

Balearic Isles. 278,660 

Canary Is. 256,408 

Spanish population of Tetuan (Morocco) . . 14,950 

Rep. Andorra. 12,000 

France. 37,472,732 

Switzerland. 2,510,494 

Italy... 24,263,320 

Papal Territory. 692,112 

Monaco*. 1,887 

Rep. San Marino. 7,080 

Austria . 32,572,932 

Turkey in Europe. 15,725,367 

Turkey Proper. 10,586,000 


* Monaco (498). — We have placed Monaco among French 
towns. By a treaty, 2 February, 1861, the ruler of that little 
principality sold a considerable part, for four million francs, to 
France. (PI. V. B. Fig. 2). The treaty reduced the population, 
from 7,627 to 1,887. It has, however, a Council of State and 
several accredited foreign Consuls. 









































236 


POPULATION TABLE. 


Roumania. 

Wallachia. 

Moldavia. 

Servia. 

Montenegro. 

Greece (with Ionian Is. 225,861) .. 

ASIA. 

Turkey in Asia (Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, and 

part of Arabia). 

Arabia (without Turkish possessions). 

(1,219,000 Wahabees, 76,500 Bedouins.) 

Persia. 

Beloochistan. 

Hindostan, or British India. 

French colonies in India (Pondicherry). 

Portuguese colonies in India (Goa). 

Indo - Chinese States (total). 

Birman Empire. 

Empire of Siam . 

Empire of Anam (Cochinchina). 

French Cochinchina. 

Independent States of Malay Peninsula . . . 
Wild wandering tribes of the Peninsula . . 

Chinese Empire (total). 

China Proper. 

Mongolia . 

Manchooria. 

Corea . 

Tibet. 

Japan . 

Russia in Asia (total). 

Caucasus. 

Siberia . 

Afghan States with Herat. 


AFRICA. 

Morocco. 

Algeria. 

Tunis . 

Tripolis with Fezzan and Barca. 

Egyptian States. 

Egypt Proper. 

Nubia. 

Kordofan. 

Abyssinia. 

Galla Country, S. of Abyssinia to the equator . . 


3,864,848 

2,400,921 

1,463,927 

1,078,281 

196,238 

1,329,236 


16,050,000 

4,000,000 

5,000,000 

2,000,000 

135,694,323 

229,533 

527,067 

21,109,000 

4,000,000 

5,000,000 

11,000,000 

900,000 

200,000 

9,000 

477,500,000 

450,000,000 

3,000,000 

3,000,000 

9,000,000 

11,000,000 

35,000,000 

9,327,966 

5,057,028 

4,270,938 

4,000,000 


2,750,000 

2,999,124 

600,000 

750,000 

7,465,000 

4,306,691 

1,000,000 

400,000 

3,000,000 

7,000,000 








































POPULATION TABLE. 


Somauli Peninsula. 

Portuguese Possessions on E. coast of Africa 

(Mozambique, Sofala etc.). 

Cape Colony. 

British Kaffraria. . . . 

Kaffraria (between British Kaffraria and Natal). . 
Land of the Kaflfres, N. of Natal and Transvaal Rep. 

Orange River Rep. 

Transvaal Rep. 

Land of Bechuanas, N. of Transvaal Rep. 

Land of Damara and Namaqua. 

Portuguese Possessions on W. coast (Angola, Ben- 

guela, etc. 

Empire of Moropue (Moluwa). 

Empire of Cazembe. 

Dahomey . 

Ashantee with tributary provinces and Gold Coast 

Liberia. 

French Senegambia (Senegal). 

Portuguese Possessions in Senegambia. 

Dutch colonies on Guinea Coast. 

Sierra Leone (English Possession). 

Empire of the Fellata or Foolah Country. 

Sahara. 

Unexplored negro countries on both sides of equa¬ 
tor according to reports. 

OCEANIA. 


MALAYSIA 

Sumatra with south-western islands. 

Java. 

Borneo with the neighboring smaller islands 

Celebes. 

Molucca or Spice Is. 

Philippines (with Sooloo Archipelago) . . . 
AUSTRAL AY SIA 

Australia. 

Tasmania. 

New Guinea. 

New Zealand. 

New Caledonia. 

POLYNESIA 

Ladrone or Marianne Is. 

Marshall Archipelago. 

Sandwich or Hawaian Is. 

Feejee Is. 

Friendly Is. 


237 


8,000,000 

300,000 

267,096 

81,353 

100,000 

440,000 

50,000 

120,000 

300,000 

60,000 

9,057,500 

1,000,000 

530,000 

150,000 

4,500,000 

250,000 

170,101 

1,095 

120,000 

41,806 

22,300,000 

4,000,000 

42,000,000 


2,600,000 

13,649,680 

1,200,000 

473,040 

376,029 

6,000,000 


1,116,970 

89,977 

1,000,000 

154,296 

26,680 

5,610 

10,460 

69,800 

200,000 

25,000 



































238 POPULATION TABLE. 

Society Is. 7,500 

Tahiti. 9,086 

Marquesas. 10,000 

ISLANDS IN INDIAN OCEAN 

Andaman Is. 10,000 

Nicobar Is. 5,000 

Ceylon. 1,919,487 

Maidive Is. 150,000 

Laccadive Is. 6,800 

I. of Socotra. 3,000 

Mauritius (with Seychelles 7,486). 322,517 

Rodriguez, Amirante Is. .. 1,569 

Reunion. 205,972 

Comoro Is. 49,000 

Madagascar. 3,000,000 

Zanzibar. 250,000 

ISLANDS IN ATLANTIC OCEAN 

Tristan da Cunha. 35 

St. Helena. 6,860 

Fernando Po and Annabon. 5,590 

St. Thomas. 8,000 

Cape Verde Is. 89,310 


( 

ERRATUM. 


the haciendas — that is, the laborers on the great plantations ”, 
read: bvt, the laborers on the great plantations, (that is the 
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